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1.The critical edition of the "MAHABHARATA" A team comprising dozens of scholars initiated the task  of preparing a critical edition of  the Mahabharata under leadership of  V.S Suthankar common verses and elements Searched through the subcontinent Taken together, more than half the 13,000 pages are devoted to these Variations This project took 47 years to complete. 2. Kinship And Marriage, Many rules and Varied Practices 2.1 Finding out about Families Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives or to use more technical term, Kinfolk According to Historians, families and kinship are as important because they provide an insight into people's thinking it is likely that some of these ideas would have shaped their actions just as actions may have led to changes in attitudes 2.2 The Ideal Of Patriliny Under patriliny sons could claim the resources  (including the throne in case of kings) of  the fathers when the latter died Around 6th century BCE onwards most ruling dynasties claimed to follow this system Although there were variations  in practice (a) no sons in  some Situations brothers succeeded one another (b) Sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne Whereas in exceptional circumstances, women Such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power Patriliny is evident in mantras ritual texts Such as the in Rigaveda 2.3 Rules of Marriage Sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, whereas daughters were viewed rather diffrently within the framework daughters had no claim to the resources of the household. Marrying  them into families outside the kin was Considered desirable This type of marriage known as "Exogamy" This gave rise to the belief that Kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father. A Questioning of  earlier beliefs and practices led to laying codes of  Social behaviour in  great detail by brahmans These were meant to be followed by Brahmanas in particular and the rest of Society in general. From c. 500 BCE, these names were compiled In Sanskrit texts known as Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras One of such important works, the Manusmriti was compiled between C 200BCE - 200CE Brahmans had given themselves universal validity and what they prescribed had to be obeyed by everybody There were eight kinds of marriages mentioned in Dharmashastra Or Dharmasutras. Those were : 1) Brahma form of marriage 2) Daiva form of marriage 3) Arsha form of marriage 4)Prajapatya form of marriage 5) Asura form of marriage 6)Gandharva form of marriage. 7) Rakshas a form of marriage 8) Paishacha form of marriage 2.4 The Gotra Of Women One Brahmanical practice, evident from (1000 BCE used to classify people in terms of gotras) Each gotra was and all those who after a Vedic Seer belonged to the Same gotra were regarded as his descendants There were two rules about gotra a) women were expected to give up their father's gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage b)Members of same gotras couldnt marry Sometimes names of men and women were derived from gotra, For instance: Satavahanas who ruler over parts of western india and the Deccan raja Gotami puta Si Satakani raja Gotami puta Sami Siri-Yana Satakani Some of the Satavahanas rulers were polygynous Names of the women who married satvahanas rulers indicates that many of them had  names derived from gotras such Gotama and Vasistha, their fathers gotras 2.5 Were mothers important ? Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics whereas we know there Succession to the throne was  generally patrilineal 3. Social Differences Within and beyond the framework of Caste 3.1 The "right" occupation The Dharmasutras and  Dharmashastras contained rules about the ideal "occupations" of the four categories or varnas, these were : 1) Brahmanas (at the apex) & To study and teach the vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed and  give and receive gifts 2) Kshatriyas - To engage in warfare, protect people administer justice, study the vedas, get sacrifices performed 3) Vaishyas To engage in  trade , agriculture and pastoralism 4) Shudras To Serve the three higher varnas These were at the bottom. Brahmanas adopted Some strategies for enforcing these norms A) to"Assert that the Varna order was of divine origin b) They advised  kings to ensure that the norms were followed within their kingdoms C) They attempted to persuade people that their Status was determined by birth. So in this way they ensured legitimacy in Society 3.2 Non-kshatriya Kings Only kshatriyas could be kings according to The Kshatriya Brahmanas This perception was changed by many ruling lineages probably had different origines. for instance mauryas who were not kshatriyas for Brahmanas but for buddhists they were considered as kshastriya The Shungas and kanvas, the immediate Successors of mauryans  were Brahmanas The Shakas who Came were from Central Asia regarded as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas In contrast of this earliest inscriptions in Sanskrit described how Rudradaman, the best known Shaka ruler (C.2nd century CE) rebuilt Sudarshana lake. The best known ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, Gotami puta Sin Satakani claimed to be both unique Brahman a destroyer of the pride of kshatriyas Therefore political power was effectively open to anyone who tould muster Support and resources and rarely depended  on birth as kshatriya 3.3 Jatis and Social mobility In Brahmanical theory, jati like varna, was based birth While the Number of varna was fixed, at four there was no restrictions on the number of jatis Brahmanical authorities encountered many new groups which did not easily fit in the fourfold varna system, they classified as a jati For instance people living in forests such as the nishadas goldsmith, etc. Jati which shared a Common occupation or profession were Sometimes organised unto Shrenis or guilds Many record the histories of these groups in inscription Such as Stone inscription found on Mondasor (MP) records the history of guild of Silk weavers 3.4 Beyond the four varnas Integration Due to diversity of the Subcontinent, populations whose social practices were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas Sanskrit texts, they are often described as  uncivilised or even animal like.For instance Categories such as nishada, nomadic pastoralists etc 3.5 Beyond the four varnas Subordination and Conflict Brahmanas Considered some people as being outside the system classified "untouchable" Those Connected with  the performance of rituals were sacred and by extension "pure" In Sharp contrast, some activities were regarded as 'polluting' including handling Corpses and dead animals. Those who performed such tasks, designated as chandals, placed at the bottom of the hierarchy The Manusmriti laid down the "duties" of the chandals, such as : 1)They had  to live outside. discarded utensils and wear cloths of dead 2) They could not walk around the village, and  cities at night 3)They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had  no relatives and serve the executioners 4. Beyond Birth Resources And Status Slaves, landless agricultural labourers, hunters, fisherfald, pastoralists, peasants, village headman, craft person, merchants emerged as Social actors in  different parts of the Subcontinent their social positions were often shaped by their access to economic resources 4.1 Gendered access to property According to the Manusmriti the paternal estate was to  be divided equally amongst Sons after the death of the parents with Special Share for the eldest women  Could not claim Share of these resources Stridhana (women's wealth ) could be inherited by their children, without the husband having claim on it Manusmriti warned women  against holding family property, or even their own valuables without the husband's permission Epigraphic and textual  evidence suggests that upper class  women may have had access to resources  land ,Cattle and money were generally controlled by men. 4.2 Varna and access to property Varna was the another criteria for regulating access to property or wealth. The wealthiest man were the * kings And the kshastriyas were the Brahmanas kings are almost invariably depicted as wealthy, priests are also generally shown to be rich, though there are Occasional depictions of the poor Brahmana . Buddhists rejected the idea of claims to status the basis of birth. 4.3 An alternative Social Scenario Sharing wealth People  either claimed or were assigned on the basis their wealth However, there were other possibilites as well; Situations where man who were generous were respected  while those were misenty or simply accumlated wealth for themselves were despised. One area where these values were cherished was ancient Tamilakam, there were several chiefdoms around 2,000 years ago. 5. Explaining Social Differences A social Contract Buddhists suggests an alternative understanding of the Social inequalities and  of the institutions required to regulate the social conflict The Text known as the Sutta Pitaka suggested that all beings lived an "idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they needed for each meal If human beings were responsible for the creation of the system, they could also change it in time 6.Handling Texts 6.1 Historians and the Mahabharata Language and content version of  the Mahabharata we have been considering is in Sanskrit Historians usually classify the content of present day texts under two broad heads i) sections that contain Stories, designated as the narrative ii) sections that contain prescriptions about Social norms, designated as didactic This division is by no means watertight the didactic Sections include the stories and narrative often contains social message 6.2 Author(s) and dates The original story was probably composed by charioteer bards known as Sutas who generally accompanied kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and Composed poems Celebrating  victory and other achievements From the 5th century BCE, Brahmanas took Over the story and began to commit to writing This was  the time when chiefdoms such as those of  kurus and the Panchalas around whom the story of  the epic revolves were gradually becoming kingdoms Another phase in the composition of the text between C.200 BCE and CE, the period between when the worship of Vishnu was growing in importance and Krishna one of the important figures of the epic, was coming to be identified with Vishnu Subsequently between C200 and 400 BCE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added Composition of  Mahabharata traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa 6.3 The Search for convergence Mahabharata an epic contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements In 1951-52 the archaeologist B.B Lal excavated at village named Hastinapura Meerut (UP) it suggests that it may have been the capital that the Kurus mentioned in the text lal found evidence of five occupational levels Second phase (c. 12th 7th centuries BCE): "Within the limited area excavated, no definite plans of houses were obtained, but walls of mud and mud bricks were duly encountered. For the third phase (C.6th-3rd centuries BCE) "Houses of this period were built of mud brick as well as burnt bricks Soakage Jars and brick drains were used draining out refuse water, while terracotta ring well  may have been used both wells and drainage pits." Draupadi's marriage with the Pandavas, On instance  of polyandry that is central to the narrative. However, historians attempted to explain it in variety of ways. Some suggest  that a polyandrous union indicates that polyandry may have been prevalent amongst ruling elites at some point of time whereas other suggests polyandry gradually fell disfavour amongst Brahmanas Some historians suggest that the practice of polyandry may have  Seemed unusual from Brahmanical point of view it was prevalent in Himalyan region Other suggests that there may have been Shortage of women during times of warfare and this led to polyandry Some early sources note that polyandry was not the only or even the most prevalent form of marriage 7. A Dynamic Text Mahabharata is a dynamic text as Several Stories that originated in Specific regions or Circulated among certain people found their way into the epic The central story was often retold in different ways and such as in plays, dance  and other kinds of narrations.

1. Princep And Piyadassi In 1830s James Princep, an officer in the the East Company mint of the India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins Most of these mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi - meaning "pleasant to behold  referred to as king Ashoka Scholars began to shift their focus to the context of political history, investigating whether there were Connections between political changes and economic and Social developments. 2. The Earliest States 2.1 The Sixteen Mahajanpadas The sixth century BCE is regarded as a major turning point in early Indian History, it is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism Buddhist and Jain texts mentioned the most important mahajanapadas Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some known as ganas or sanghas Both and Mahavira the Buddha belonged to such ganas .For example In the case of the Vajji Sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources Such as land collectively. Each mahajanpadas had a capital city, which was often fortified. These mahajanpadas were Anga, kashi, kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, vatsa, kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asvaka, Avanti, Gandhra, kamboja, and Magadha Brahmanas began composing Sanskrit texts known the Dharmasutras, laid down norms for rulers, who were ideally expected to be kshatriyas Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans 2.2 First amongst the Sixteen: Magadha Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada. Some features of Magadha were Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive. Besides, iron mines (in present day, Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons In Magadha, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convient communication Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha Some of the best known kings of Magadha such as Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda Intially, Rajagaha was the capital of Magadha. It was fortified Settlement, located amongst hills In late fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to patliputra ,present day Patna commanding routes of communication along the ganga. 3. An Early Empire - The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the Chandragupta Maurya (Maurayan) empire. 3.1 Finding out about the Mauryas. There are variety of the history of the sources to reconstruct Maurayan Empire include archaeological finds specially sculpture, contemporary works, Such as Megasthenes (a Greek the account of ambassador to the court. of Chandragupta Maurya which survives in Fragments. Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra, parts of which were probably Composed by Kautilya or (Chanakya minister of Chandragupta) Mauryas  are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, as in Sanskrit literary works The inscriptions on rocks and of Ashoka (C.272/268-231 BCE) pillars often regarded are as amongst the most valuable Sources. Ashoka was  the first ruler who inscribed his message to his subjects officially Ashoka understood to be dhamma Included respect towards generosity, etc. 3.2 Administrating the empire Five major political centres in the empire are the capital Pataliputra and the provincial centres Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, all are mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions In Ashokan inscriptions same message engraved everywhere province for instances, North West Frontier of Pakistan, to Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Uttarakhand in India. Administrative Control was strongest in areas as Taxila and Ujjayini. Being Situated on important long distance trade routes Suvarnagiri was possibly important tapping for the gold mines of karnatka. Megasthenes mentions a Committee with Six Subcommittees for coordinating military activity. One looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, the third was responsible for foot soldeirs, fourth for horses, and the the fifth for chariots Sixth for elephants. The activities of the second subcommittee were rather varied- procuring food for soldiers and fodder for animals, etc. 3.3 How important was the empire? Mauryan Empire was regarded as a major Landmark, One of was Ashoka. the most significant ruler Mauryan Empire founded by Chandragupta  Maurya (321 BC-298 BC) with the "help of Chanakya (Kautilya) This empire was Spread almost very long from 324 BC-185 for 150 years, which is not the vast span of time in the history of subcontinent Many historians found the message on Ashokan inscriptions very different of most other rulers, suggesting was from that that Ashok  was more powerful and industrious. 4. New Notions of kingship 4.1 Chiefs and kings in the South Many new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan and further South, including the chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilkam, proved to be Stable and prosperous Variety of sources tell us about these States Such Tamil Sangam Texts poems Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas and who ruled over parts of  western and central India (C 2nd century - 2 century CE) The Shakas, people of central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north west and western parts of the subcontinent 4.2 Divine Kings Any kings claimed high status and considered themselves as god like For instance kushanas (C. 1st century BCE - 1st century CE), who ruled over vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India Colossal statues of kushana rulers have been found installed In a shrine at Mat near Mathura (U.P.) and in Afghanistan as well Some kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or "Son of god" inspired by Chinese Sons rulers who called themselves son of heaven Gupta rulers histories could be reconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions most important Prashastis Prashastis, composed in praise of kings in particular and patrons by poets 5. A Changing Countryside 5.1 Popular perceptions kings Subjects thinking about their rulers Contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas, and the Panchatantra. The Jataks were written in Pali around the middle of the first millennium CE One Story known as the Gandatindu Jataka indicates the relationship between a king. and his subjects, especially the rural population "Could often be Strained. This strain was due to demanding high taxes and peasants particularly found such. demands oppressive 5.2 Strategies for increasing production Different Strategies were adopted for increasing production. One such strategy was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial" river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the kaveri from 6th century The iron tipped plough share was used to turn the alluvial soils in areas with high rainfall Introduction of transplantation increased production of paddy while the iron ploughshare led to a growth in agricultural productivity Another strategy adopted  to increase agriculture production was  the use of irrigation through wells and tanks canals, etc. 5.3 Differences in rural Society Technologies often led to an increase in production, the benefits were very uneven, resultant unto different categories The large landholders, as well  as the village headman emerged as powerful figures and often exercised control Over other cultivators. Early Tamil Literature (the Sangam texts) also mentions different categories the villages of people in large landowners ploughmen or uzhawar and Slaves or Adimai Vellalar 5.4 Land Grants And New Elites We find grants of Land being made, many of which were recorded in inscriptions. Some of these inscription were not stone but most were on Copper Inscriptions were in various languages such as  in Sanskrit, Tamil or Telugu Prabhavati Gupta , daughter of Chandragupta II Inscription indicates that she had access to. land, which she then granted. However, according to Sanskrit texts, Women not supposed to have access to resources Such as land Inscription also gives us rural populations. an idea about land and There were regional variations in the sizes of land donated ranging from small plots to vast stretches of uncultivated the rights given to donees Historians has been debated among themselves on the issue why these grants why were these grants made Here we have two reasons (a) Some feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling lineages to extend agriculture to new areas. (b)Other feel land grants were indicative of weaking political power, as kings were losing Control over their Samantas 6.  Towns And Trade 6.1 New Cities From C Sixth century BCE, urban centers started to emerge, many of them were capital of Mahajanapadas Major towns  were located along routes of communication Some such as Pataliputra were on riverine routes Others, such as Ujjayini were along land routes and yet others  Such as Puhar, were near the coast 6.2 Urban populations: Elites and Craft persons In Second century BCE, we find short votive inscriptions in a no of cities mention the name of the donor and sometimes occupation  as well Sometimes, Quilds or shrenis, organizations of Craft producers and merchants are mentioned as well. 6.3 Trade In The Subcontinent From 6th century, land and beyond and river routes Criss Crossed the Subcontinent and extended un Various directions Overland into Central Asia and beyond and overseas, from ports that dotted the coastline extending aross the  Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia and through the Bay Of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China Those who transverse these routes included peddlers who probably travelled on foot, merchants, seafarers whose venture were risky  but highly profitable Goods Such as grain, cloth. species, salt, metal ore, timber, medicine were all transported across the Arabian Sea to  the Mediterranean 6.4 Coins and Kings Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage Punch marked Coins made of silver and copper (C.6th century onwards) were minted and use The first coins to bear images of rulers were issued by Indo-Greeks. The first gold coins were issued in1st century CE by the kushanas These identical in weight with those issued by contemporary Roman emperors and the Parthian rulers of Iran The widespread use of gold coins Indicates the enormous value of transactions that were taking of place. Archaeologists have unearthed Several thousand of coins were issued by Yaudhiyas of Punjab and Haryana. Some were of the most spectacular gold coins issued by the remarkable for Gupta rulers, their purity. From  6th century CE onwards finds of gold Coins taper off. This may be due to these reasons : a) Some suggest that with the collapse of Western Roman Empire long distance trade declined, and this affected the prosperity of states b) Other argue that new towns and network of trade started emerging around this time. 7. BACK TO BASICS How ARE INSCRIPTIONS DECIPHERED? 7.1 Deciphering Brahmi Most Scripts used to write  modern Indian languages derived from Brahmi, the  Script used in most Ashokan inscriptions. European Scholars aided by Indian pandits in deciphering Brahmi Only after decades of pain staking investigation by several epigraphists that James Princep was able to decipher Ashokan  Brahmi in 1838. 7.2 How Kharosthi was read ? Finds  of Indo- Greeks kings coin who ruled over the area  have facilitated matters These coins contain the names of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi Scripts European Scholars who could read the former Compared the letters. For instance, the symbol for "A" could be  found in both scripts For writing names such as Apollodotus. With Princep identifying the language of Kharosthi Inscriptions became possible to read longer inscriptions as well 7.3 Historical Evidence From Inscriptions Historians first examine all inscriptions find that they match In terms of content, style, language and paleography, hence concluded that they were issued by some rulers 8. The Limitation of Inscriptional Evidence Sometimes, there are technical limitations; letters are very faintly engraved and thus reconstructions are uncertain Inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing. It is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of  the words used in inscriptions Although several thousand inscriptions have been discovered, not all have been deciphered Another perhaps more fundamental problem not everything that we may consider politically or economically significant was necessarily recorded in inscriptions.

1. Beginnings These cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism, and Some crafts. Settlements were generally small. Reasons for a break between Early Harappan and the Harappan civilization was large-scale burning at some sites. 2. Subsistence Strategies The Harappan ate a wide range of plant and animals products, including fish Archaeologists reconstructed dietary practices from finds of charred Grains and Seeds. Grains found at Harappan Sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and Sesame. Millets are found from sites jn Gujrat Animals bone found at Harappan sites includes those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. 2.1 Agricultural technologies Seals and terracotta Sculpture indicate that bull was known and given as evidence for ploughing (Choliston & Banawali) Evidence of a ploughed field also found at kalibangan (Rajasthan) Pattern of growing crop The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other. Location of Harappan Sites mostly are in semi arid lands (because of the irrigation facilities) traces of canals found at - Shortughai in Afghanistan traces of reservoirs- Dholavira (Gujrat) 3. Mohanjodaro A planned urban center The settlement is divided into two Sections 3.1 Laying out drains Distinctive features of Harappan Cities the carefully planned drainage system. Roads and was Streets were laid out along on approximate "grid" pattern, intersecting at 90° 3.2 Domestic architecture Residential buildings were mostly centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. Apparent concern for privacy, no windows walled along the ground level. Entrance does not give direct view of house. Every house with bricks has its bathroom paved with bricks. It is estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700. 3.3 The Citadel Probably used for special public purposes Citadel include Warehouse + Great bath Warehouse was massive structure of which  the lower brick portions remain, while the upper portions, probably of wood. Rectangular tank in a Courtyard surrounded by corridor on all four sides called great bath 4. Tracking Social Differences 4.1 Burials In the excavations at the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, an ornament Consisting of three shell rings, a jasper bead and hundreads of micro beads near the Skull of a male In Some instances the dead with copper mirrors were buried on the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things. 4.2 Looking for "luxuries" Archaeologists broadly classify artifacts as 5. Finding Out About Craft Production Mohenjodaro (125 hectares), almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead making, Shell-cutting, metal working, seal - making and weight-making. The variety  of materials used to make beads is remarkable: Stones like carnelian, jasper, -quartz; metals like copper, bronze and gold, etc. Specialised drills have been found at Lothal, Chanhudaro and more recently at Dholavira. Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centres for making shell objects including bangles, Ladles and inlay... Finished products such as beads from Chanhudaro and Lothal were taken to the large centres such as Mohenjodaro and Harrapa 5.1 Identifying centres of production Identify In order to identify craft production, archeologists usually look for the following Raw materials Such as Stone nodules, whole Shells, copper ore, tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste material. Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work Apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa. 6. Strategies For Procuring Materials Terracotta toy models that this was. one of bullock carts sugges: important means transporting goods and people aross land routes 6.1 Materials from the Subcontinent and beyond The Harappan procured materials for craft production in various ways. For instance, they established Settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot where shell was available Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to Send expeditions to areas Such as the khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and South India (for gold). Evidence in the archaeologists call khetri area for what the Ganeshwar-Jodhpur culture with its distinctive non-Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects It is possible that the inhabitants of this region Supplied copper to the Harappans 6.2. Contact with distant lands Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani Copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin Jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani sites (Such thick coating prevents the percolation of liquids). Harappans possibly exchanged the contents of these vessels for Omani Copper The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with "Meluha which was the name given to Indus region. Shortughai and Mundigag were the Indus Sites found in Afghanistan. The Sumerian texts also refer to two. intermediate stations- Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast), Susa, and Ur are Mesopotamian places. where Harappan Seals were found. 7. Seals Script, Weights 7.1 Seals Sealings Seals and sealings were long-distance Communication Sealing conveyed the  identity of the Sender 7.2 An enigmatic script Harappan Seals usually have a line of writing probably containing the name and title of the owner. Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script   remains undeciphered. As it has too many signs - somewhere between 375 and 400. Script was written from right to left. Motif (generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read. 7.3 Weights Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a Stone called Chert The lower denominations of weights were binary (1,2,3,4,8, 16, 32, etc up to 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal System. 8. Ancient Authority There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan Society, Who organised these activities? 8.1 Palaces & kings No authentic evidence found in favour of palaces and  Kings A statue was labelled and continues to be known as  the "priest-king" Several arguments are there regarding who help political power in Harappan civilisation. The last theory seems the most plausible, as it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented Such complex decisions. 9. THE END OF THE CIVILIZATION Evidence of most of the Mature Harappan Sites in regions such as cholistan had been abandoned by c. 1.800. Expansion of population into in  new settlements in Gujrat, Haryana and western UP Disappearance of the weights, seals, special beads writing, long-distance trade and craft Specialisation Reason of this vital disappearance -Climate change, deforestation, excessive floods. to overuse of the landscape, etc. Perhaps the Harappan State, came to end. 10. Discovering The Harappan Civilisation 10.1 Cunningham's Confusion Cunningham, was the first Director General of the AST, began archaeological excavations in the 19th century. He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the Subcontinent in bet 4th to 7th century. Cunningham noted a Harappan seal but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time frame with which he was familiar (because he thought that Indians history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley) Thus, he missed the significance of Harappa. 10.2 A new old civilisation John Marshall was the first scholar to use the term 'Indus Civilisation and he was also Director General of the ASI ( discovery of new civilization) Excavators of Harappa - Daya Ram Sahni (1921), Madho Swaroop vatsa (1926), Wheeler (1946). Contemporary civilizations of Indus Civilization Mesopotomia, Egypt & China. 10.3 New Techniques and questions R.E.M. Wheeler, after he took over as Director General of the ASI in 1944. He recognised that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines With the partition of the subcontinent and the creation of Pakistan, the major sites are now. In Pakistani territory Survey in Kutch revealed a humber of Harappan Settlements and explorations in Punjab and Haryana have added to the list of Harappan Sites. While kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Gujrat) and hoost recently Dholavira (Gujrat) have been discovered, explored and excavated as part of these efforts, fresh explorations continue. 11. Problems Of Piecing Together the Past Material evidence that allows archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life rather than Harappan script. 11.1 Classifying finds One principle of classification of artefacts is in terms of material, such as Stone, clay, metal, etc The Second and more complicated, us un an terms of function, for instance, artefact as a tool or an ornament or both Archaeologists have to develop frames of reference. For instance, First Harappan be a Seal that was found could not be understood till archeologists had context in which to place it. 11.2 Problems of interpretation Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious Significance for instance, mother goddess,"priest king" In other instances,structures have been assigned ritual significance These include the great bath and fire altars found at kalibangan and lothal the chief male deity was the "pasupati mahadeva" -the lord of animals (proto shiva) represented in seals as sitting in yogic posture ,he is surrounded by.

U.N. and its Organization: The olive branch is a symbol of peace, while the world map represents the organization in its quest to attain world peace. United Nations Significant Agencies 1.World Bank Created in 1944 Works for you human development, agriculture and rural development, environmental protection , infrastructure and governance and provides loans and grants to developing countries. Its headquarters is in Washington DC, USA. It is criticised for setting the economic agenda of poorer Nations , attaching stringent conditions to its loans and forcing free market reforms. 2. International Monetary fund (IMF) At the international level, overseas financial institutions and regulations. It consists of 189 members , out of them , G-8 members enjoy more powers , i.e. , the US , Japan, Germany , France , the UK , Italy , Canada and Russia except china and Saudi Arabia. The US alone enjoys 16.75% voting rights. 3. World Trade organization (WTO) It was created on 1 January,1995. An international organisation to set the rules for global trade which was set up as a successor to GATT. currently it has 164 member state. Major economic Powers such as the EU,US and Japan have managed to use the WTO to frame rulers of trade to advance their own interests. 4. International atomic energy agency (IAEA) It was established in 1957 to implement US President Dwight Eisenhower's " Atoms for peace " proposal. It seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to prevent it's use of for military purpose. It regularly inspect nuclear Facilities all over the world to ensure that civilian reactor are not being used for military purposes 5. Amensty International It is an NGO to campaign for the protection of human rights all over world It prepares published reports on human rights to search and advocate human rights. Major focus of Amensty is the misconduct of government authorities. 6. Human Rights watch It's an international NGO involved in research and advocacy of human rights. The largest international human rights organisation is in the US. HRW draws the global media attention to human rights abuses. It help in building international coalitions like the campaigns to ban landmines , to stop to use of child soldier and to establish the international criminal court. The United Nations The UN was established in 1945 after the World war II and requires a successor to the league of nation. Objective of UN is to prevent international conflict and to facilitate cooperation among States. UN Principal Organs 1. UN general assembly - deliberative assembly 2. UN security council - maintenance of international peace and security. 3. UN secretariat - administrative organ. 4. International court of justice - universal court for International law ( hague) 5. UN economic and social council - global economical and social affairs. 6. UN trusteeship council- administering trust territories. Two basic kinds of reforms face the UN :- 1. Reform of the organisation structure and process. 2. Review of the issues that fall within the jurisdiction of the organisation . The resolution reflected three main complaints:- 1. The SC no longer represent contemporary politics realities. 2. It's decisions reflects only western values and interests and are dominated by a few powers. 3. It lacks equitable representation. Criteria for inclusion of a new member in security council :- A major economic Power. A major military power. A substantial contributor to the UN budget. A big nation in terms of population. A nation that reflects democracy and human rights. A country that would make the council more representative of the world's diversity in terms of geography, economic systems and culture. Jurisdiction of the UN A meeting was held in September 2005, to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the UN and to review the situation. And thus, below some suggestions were given by UN leaders:- 1. Creation of a peace building commission. 2. Acceptance of the responsibility of the international community in case of failures of national govt. to protect their own citizens from atrocities. 3. Establishment of HRC ( since 19 june 2006). 4. Agreements to achieve the millennium development goals. 5. Condemnation of terrorism in all its form and manifestation. 6. Creation of a democracy fund. An agreement to wind up the trusteeship council. India and the UN reforms India's most important demand in to reconstruct the security council. It supports an increase in the number of both permanent and non- permanent members. It also argues that an expanded council,with more representative , will enjoy greater support in the world community. India itself wishes to be permanent member in a UN. The UN In An Unipolar World Many countries believe that the reform and the reconstructing of the UN could help the UN cope better with a unipolar world. The US stands as the only superpower after the disintegration of USSR hence Us power cannot be easily checked. UN largest contributor is US (it has unmatched financial power). It is important for people to use and support the UN and other international organisation in ways that are consistent with their own interest. UNESCO The United nation educational scientific and cultural organisation UNESCO was established on 4 November 1946. Its headquarter is in Paris, France. Objective :- 1. To promote education , natural science society , and anthropology , culture and communication. 2. To promote Liberty, technical and educational training and independent media etc. all across its member nation. UNICEF The United Nations international children's emergency fund (UNICEF) was established in 1946 by UN general assembly. It's headquarter is in New York, US Objective:- 1. To help in the development work all across the world. 2. To help encourages the works that promote children's health and better life in all parts of the world. UNICEF has been working successful in almost all 193 countries of the world. ILO The international labour organisation ( ILO) founded in October 1919. Its headquarter is in Geneva, Switzerland. Objective:- to promote efficient conditions of social justice and work for workers international labour stands at the global level. There is an incentive for women and male workers to engaged and productive work and to create safety at workplace.

INTRODUCTION At the hour of midnight on 14 -15 August, India attend independence. Tryst with destiny was the speech given by the Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru in a special session of the constituent assembly. Two goals for the new nation to achieve: To run our country through democratic government. And government will work for all particularly the poor and the socially disadvantaged groups. Independent India Faced 3 Kinds Of Challenges To shaped nation that was United yet accommodative of diversity in our society. To establish democracy. To ensure the development and well being of entire society and not only for some sections Partition Displacement And Rehabilitation On 14 -15 August two Nations came into existence India and Pakistan. Two Nation Theory This Theory Advanced By Muslim League, India Consisted Of Not one but two 'people', Hindus and Muslims. So it demanded Pakistan, a separate country for Muslims . however Congress opposed this theory and this created political tension between two parties led to the creation of Pakistan by British. Process Of Partition Areas where the Muslims were in majority would make-up the territory of Pakistan .the rest was to stay with India. While partition basically they faced problems: there were two areas of concentration of Muslims one in East and another in West. Secondly not all Muslim areas wanted to be in  Pakistan, Khan Abdul Gaffer Khan, leader of North Western Frontier province (NWFP) ,(known as Frontier Gandhi ( opposed two nation theory. Third, Punjab and Bengal , Muslim majority provinces have very areas where the non Muslims were in majority. Hence, partition decision could not be made by the midnight of 14 -15 August. Consequences Of Partition This petition has known as one of most unplanned and tragic transfer of population in human history. Many people killed in the name of religion. Most affected areas were: Lahore, Amritsar and Kolkata. Forced to abandon their homes and move across borders. Women were killed by their own family members to preserve the 'family honor'. For people the country is freedom meant life in 'refugee camps'. Many said this partition as a 'division of hearts'. It is estimated that partition force about 8 million people to migrate across new border. Indian leaders opposed partition. 5 to 10 lakh people were killed. According to 1951, India accounted for 12% Muslims of total population. Integration Of Princely States 1. Total number of princely states 565. 2.These states were free to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent. 3. Rulers of Travancore, Hyderabad and Bhopal declared their state 'independent'. Government Approach Interim government to a firm stance against the division of India into small principalities of different sizes. Sardar Patel played a crucial role in negotiating with the rulers of princely states. The government's approach was guided by three considerations: People of princely states wanted to join Indian union. Government was ready to give autonomy to some regions. Thirdly, the integration and consolidation of territorial  boundaries of the nation had assumed supreme importance. Instrument Of Accession The rulers of most of the state signed a document called instrument of accession. which meant that is state agreed to become a part of the union of India. accession of princely states of Junagarh ,Hyderabad ,Kashmir and Manipur proved difficult. Hyderabad One of the largest princely states. its ruler carried the title , Nizam and one of the richest person in world . in November 1947 signed an agreement known as standstill agreement for a year. Nizam was very oppressive to its people .so many started movement against him particularly peasantry in Telangana region. Nizam responded by unleashing a paramilitary force known as razakars on the people. When atrocities is reached to Apex Central Government order the army to tackle the situation. Finally, in September of 1948, the Nizam surrendered, led to Hyderabad's accession to India. Manipur Maharaja of Manipur Bodh Chandra Singh, signed the instrument of accession with the Indian government on insurance of internal autonomy. Government of India (GOI) succeeded in pressurizing the maharaja into signing a merger agreement in September 1949 ,without consulting the popularly elected legislative assembly of Manipur. Reorganization of States Indian government appointed the states reorganization commission in 1953, for redrawing the boundaries of States. On the basis of which report the states reorganization act was passed in 1956. State boundaries were on the basis of different language. This led to the creation of 14 states and 6 union territories Vishal Andhra movement Movement for a separate Andhra demanded that the Telugu speaking areas should be separated from the Madras province of which they were a part and be made into a separate Andhra province. The states of Maharashtra and Gujarat were created in 1960. Haryana and Himachal Pradesh was separated from the larger Punjab state in 1966 Meghalaya was carved out of Assam in 1972. The states of Mizoram and and Arunachal Pradesh came into being in 1987. Nagaland became state much earlier in 1963. Three States Chhattisgarh ,Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand work created in 2000. Telangana state was carved out from Andhra Pradesh in 2014. Patel And National Integration Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel the first deputy prime minister and home minister of India. Emerged as a major leader of the freedom movement after the Kheda Satyagraha 1918 and the Bardoli Satyagraha 1928 Sardar did the  most difficult task of that time by uniting all 565 princely states of India. He Is also known as iron man of India remained intransigence on issuance of territorial integrity of India. Sardar faced key challenges of integration from three states viz, Hyderabad, Junagarh, and Kashmir. Under his leadership India forces compelled Hyderabad and Junagadh to merge with India. He had different opinion on Kashmir from other leaders and was against two nation theory also. Due to political decisions of prominent leaders, sardar could not succeeded in integrating Kashmir fully with India which later turned into a major historical blunder for the country. Sardar Patel As NCR In Indian Political Theory N -Nationalist Means a person who strong identifies with their nation and vigorously support its interest. C - Catalyst Means of personality who has ability to precipitates an event or change. Such people talk enthusiastically and this energy causes others to be more friendly. R - Realist Means sardar had  a good grip on the reality of the situation and used to understand what can be done and cannot be done.

European Union Marshall plan was launched under which America extended massive financial help for reviving Europe's economy. Under the Marshall plan the organization for European economic cooperation (OEEC)was established in 1948 to channel aid  to the west European states. The council of Europe, stablished in 1949 was another step forward in political cooperation. Next step lead to the formation of European economic community in 1957. European union established in 1992, for a common foreign and security policy cooperation on justice and home affairs and the creation of single currency. EU has its own Flag ,anthem ,founding date and currency. The EU has economic ,political and diplomatic and military influence. The EU is the world's biggest economy with a GDP of more than $ 12 trillion in 2005, slightly larger than USA. EU currency the euro ,can pose  threat to the dominance of the US dollar. EU share of World Trade is three times larger than that of the  of United States. Two members of EU , Britain and France, hold permanent seat on the UN security council ,as well as several  non-permanent members of the UNSC. Military, the EU 's combined armed  are the second largest in the world .Its Total spending on defense is second after the US. EU members, Britain and France also have nuclear  arsenals of approximately 550 nuclear warheads. But sometime EU member state have their own foreign policy which did not favour EU interest for example Britain PM Tony Blair was America's  partner in the Iraq invasion. Many  EU  newer member made of the US led  coalition of the willing where as Germany and France opposed American policy. Britain former Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher kept  the UK out of the EU market. Denmark and Sweden has resisted the Maastricht Treaty, and the adoption of the euro. Thus, this  limits the ability of the EU to act in  matters of foreign relations and defense. Flag of EU The European flag symbolizes both the European Union and, more broadly, the identity and unity of Europe. It features a circle of 12 gold stars on a blue background. They stand for the ideals of unity, solidarity and harmony among the peoples of Europe. ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations Established:-1976. (five)Founder countries :- Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Existence :- After Bangkok Declaration ASEAN Flag : 10 stalk ( paddy) rice. (solidarity and friendship) Circle symbolise unity Objectives of ASEAN Three Pillars 1.ASEAN security community:- Territorial dispute should not escalate into armed confrontations. 2. ASEAN economic community:- common market production base Free Trade Area Dispute Settlement mechanism to resolve economic disputes. 3. ASEAN Socio- cultural Community:- Improving existing ASEAN. Promoting cultural activities and mutual cooperation in the population control, sports and education. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) [1994] : To coordinate security and foreign policy. PRIMARY OBJ. Economic growth through social progress and cultural development. SECONDARY OBJ. Regional peace and stability based on principles of UN charter. ASEAN WAY :- Countries have celebrated , a form of informal , non- confrontationist and cooperative interaction known as ASEAN Way. ASEAN Vision of 2020 :- Outward looking role in international community The Rise Of Chinese Economy China now turn to the third major alternative center of power. It is projected to overtake the US as the world's largest economy by 2040 .China influence regional affairs. The strength of its economy along with factors like population, land mass, resources , regional location and political influence add  to its power in significant ways. The China economic was based on the Soviet model under leadership of Mao. And China chose to adopt capitalist model to establish  the foundation of an industrial economy. Employment and social welfare was assured to all citizen. the economy also grew at the respectable rate of 5-6 %. Annual growth of  2-3% in population was not sufficient to meet the needs of growing population. Agricultural  production was not sufficient to generate a surplus for industry. In China major policy decision taken in 1970s. China ended  its political and economic isolation with the USA in 1972. Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the 'four modernizations ' ( agricultural ,industry, science and technology and military)  in 1973. In 1978, the leader Deng Xiaoping  announced the 'open door' policy and economic reforms in China. To generate higher productivity by investment of capital and technology from abroad open door policy were  introduced. The privatization of agriculture in 1982 followed by the privatization of industry 1998. Trade barriers were eliminated only in special economic zone (SEZs). Privatization led to the faster economic growth rate and rise in foreign trade. China has become the most important destination for foreign direct investment( FDI) anywhere in the world. Another step towards opening was China accession to the WTO in 2001 . But this economy improvement has created many problems such as :- Unemployment has rise nearly 100 million people looking for jobs . Poor  females employment and working condition. environmental degradation and corruption has increased . Rise in economic inequality between rural and urban residents. INDIA CHINA Relation Military conflict over a border dispute between the two countries in 1962 ( Arunachal Pradesh and in the Aksai chin region of Ladakh) Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 and the final settlement of  the Sino and Indian border. Diplomatic relation between two countries were downgraded until 1976. A series of talks to resolve the border issue in were  initiated in 1981. Rajiv Gandhi visit to China in December 1988 to improve the Indo China relations. Since the both Government have taken measure to contain conflict  and maintain 'peace and tranquility on the border, signed  agreement on culture exchanges and cooperation in science and technology ,and opened  for border posts for trade. Bilateral trade between India and China has increased from $338 million in 1992 to more than $18 billion in 2006. Both countries adopted similar economic policies in international economic institutions like the WTO. China was seen as contributing to the build up of Pakistan's  nuclear programme. Thus, increasing transportation  and communication links, common economic interests  establish a more positive and sound relationship between  the two. BRICS The term BRICS refers to B Brazil R Russia I India C China S South Africa Was Founded In 2006 In Russia BRIC  turned into BRICS after the inclusion of South Africa in its first meeting in 2009 Objective To cooperate and distribute mutual economic benefits among its members besides non- interference in the internal policies of each nation and mutual equality. 11th conference of BRICS in Brazil chaired by Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro. RUSSIA Largest part of Soviet union was Russia . Dissolution of USSR ,led Russia the strong successor of USSR Russia 's GDP is currently 11th in the world with 2.3 % annual change (2018) Russia has reserves of minerals ,natural resources and gases that makes it a powerful country in the global world Russia is a nuclear state with huge stock of sophisticated weapons and permanent member of UN security council, called P-5. INDIA Emerging global power Rising in multinational way Population of 130 crores Growing alternative center of power in 21st century 5th most important military in world From an economic perspective ,India targeting the goal of a $5 trillion economy ,a competitive huge market From a strategic perspective, the military of India is self sufficient with indigenous nuclear technology. Make in India scheme in technology and science is another milestone of Indian economy. ISRAEL Emerged as one of the most powerful country in terms of  science and technology, defense and intelligence . Situated in middle of the burning politics of West Asian Countries. Factors of emerging power Indomitable defense prowess Technological innovations Industrial development Agricultural development Sustaining against adversity is the principle with a Jewish Zionist nation ,Israel is contemporary alternative center.

INTRODUCTION South Asia usually includes the following countries Bangladesh , Bhutan , Nepal , Pakistan , India and Sri Lanka and Maldives. South Asia stands for diversity in every sense and yet constitutes one geo political sense. Despite many problems and limitations, Sri Lanka and India have successfully operated a democratic system since their independence from the British. Pakistan and Bangladesh have experience both civilians and military rulers , with Bangladesh remaining a democracy in the post cold war period. Pakistan began the post cold war period with successive democratic government under Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif respectively. It suffered a military coup in 1999 and has been run by a military regime since then. Till 2006, Nepal a successful popular uprising led to the Restoration of democracy after constitutional monarchy. Bhutan is still a monarchy but the king has initiated plans for its transition to multiparty democracy. The Maldives (Island nation) was a sultanate till 1968 when it was transformed into a republic with a presidential form of Government. the Maldivian democratic party (MDP), now it has multi party system dominates the political affairs of the island. The Military And Democracy In Pakistan (A) General Ayub Khan (1958) Took over the administration of country Elected himself Gave up office where there was dissatisfaction Again his own rule. (B.)Generally Yahya Khan (military take over once again in 1977) during his time, Pakistan faced Bangladesh crisis 1971. (C) Elected Government Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971 - 77) (D) general Zia - ul haq Faced pro-democracy movement (from1982). (E) elected government in 1988 Benazir Bhutto (F) during this time Pakistan politics  centered around Pakistan peoples party and the Muslim league Army step in again in 1999. (G) general Pervez Musharraf Remove PM Nawaz Sharif in 2001 elected himself as president Factors contributing to failure of democracy in Pakistan. Social dominance of military , clergy and landholding aristocracy. Pakistan conflict with India has made the pro military groups more powerful. Thus , Democracy has not been successful in Pakistan Lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan. example :- US and other Western countries have increased the military rule for their own reasons ( global Islamic terrorism). Military regime in Pak has been seen as the protector of Western interest in West Asia and South Asia Democracy in Bangladesh Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971 consisted areas of Bengal and Assam. Reasons of separation from Pakistan Domination of Western Pakistan Imposition of Urdu language Unfair representation in administration. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Led the popular struggle against west Pakistan domination. In 1970 election, awami league led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman won all seats in East Pakistan. Proposed constituent assembly for the whole of Pakistan. West Pakistan leadership refused to convene the assembly Mujib was arrested. Thousands were killed by Pakistan army and this year to the war, in 1971 between Pakistan and India that ended in the surrender of Pakistani forces in east Pakistan. and formation of Bangladesh as an independent country. Nepal Nepal was a Hindu Kingdom in the past but later changed into a constitutional monarchy for many years. The king accepted the demand for a new democratic constitution in 1992 after strong pro-democracy movement. There was a conflict among the democrats, Maoists and monarchists forces which led to the abolition of parliament and dismissal of government in 2002 by the king. After a  Pro democratic movement , again in 2006 , the king was forced to restore the house of representatives. Sri Lanka The democratic setup of Sri Lanka was disturbed by the ethnic conflict among the Sinhalese and Tamil origin people. Sinhalese believe the region  of Ceylon belong to Sinhala  people only and not to the Tamils (origin is India). This led to the formation of liberation tiger of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) , a militant organization. The Government of India signed an Accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops to stabilize relations between the Sri Lankan Government and the Tamil. Eventually the Indian army got into a fight with the LTTE later on the Indian peace keeping force IPKF was called out of Sri Lanka in 1989 without achieving it seems. In spite of the ethnic conflict, the economy of Sri Lankan has always been high. India And Its Other Neighbors Neighboring countries of India are Bangladesh, Nepal , Sri Lanka, Pakistan , Bhutan  and Maldives. conflicts between India and Bangladesh include sharing of Ganga and Brahmaputra river water and illegal immigration to India etc. both India and Bangladesh share a cordial relation with each other. Economic relations between the two have improved considerably. Nepal and India shares a friendly relation with each other but certain issues like warm relation of Nepal with China , Maoists movements in Nepal have disturbed the relation. But still both the countries are together on trade, scientific, cooperation, electric generation and inter locking water management. India enjoys a very special relationship with Bhutan too and does not have any major conflict with the Bhutanese government. Peace and cooperation There are certain issues of conflicts among the South Asian countries. The South Asian countries initiated the establishment of South Asian Association for regional cooperation ( SAARC) in 1985 to evolve cooperation among each other. The SAFTA was signed in 2004 by the South Asian countries to allow free trade across the borders. SAFTA aims at lowering trade tariffs by 20% By 2007. However, there has been issues between India and Pakistan, measures were being taken to bring cordial changes between the countries. China and USA remain key players in South Asia politics. Thus, there are also on outside power which influence the region.

DEFINITIONS 1. BIPOLARITY: It is the system of world order in which the majority of global economic , military and cultural influence is held between two states 2. UNIPOLARITY :affairs at international level are dominated by only one superpower. 3. SOCIALISM: socialism is a range of economic and social system characterized by social ownership and democratic control of the mean of production as well as the political theories associated with them example Russia. 4. SHOCK THERAPY: the model of transition from authoritarian and socialist system to a democratic capitalist system in Russia ,Central Asia and East Europe. 5. CAPITALISM: an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. for instance :- US follow ideology of capitalism. SOVIET SYSTEM The union of Soviet socialist republics (USSR) came into being in after the socialist revolution in Russia, 1917. Soviet system gave primary to the state and the institution of the party. Its political system and centered around the communist party, no other was allowed Main feature of Soviet system- i) Very bureaucratic. ii) Authoritarian iii) Equality of outcomes. 15 different republics that formed USSR to manage their own affairs including their cultural affairs, but dominated by Russia Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 weakened  the system GORBACHEV AND THE DISINTEGRATION Mikhail Gorbachev, last leader of Soviet union introduced the economic and political reforms. During Gorbachev , countries which were  part of the Soviet bloc started to protest against their own Governments and Soviet control. His reforms were opposed by leaders within the communist party. During this time Boris Yeltsin emerged as a national hero. He began to shake off centralized control power begin to shift from Soviet center to the republics. In December 1991 under the leadership of Yeltsin , Russia, Ukraine and Belarus , three Major republics of USSR declared that Soviet union was disbanded. Hence, communist party was banned , capitalism and democracy were adopt as the base for the post -Soviet republic. The exclusion of these republics was an issue that was quickly solved by making them founding members of the CIS (Commonwealth Of Independent State). Now Russia inherited the soviets seat in the UN security council. REASONS OF SOVIET UNION DISINTEGRATION Internal weakness of Soviet political and economic institution. Soviet economic use much of its resources in maintaining a nuclear and military powers led to huge economic burden that system could not cope with. System was not accountable to the people and party bureaucrats gained more privileges than ordinary citizens. The rise of nationalism and the desire for sovereignty within various republic including Russia and the Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) Ukraine, Georgia. Gorbachev reforms increase nationalist dissatisfaction. CONSEQUENCES OF DISINTEGRATION First, end of confrontation demand an end to this arms race and a possible new. Second power relation in world politics changed and therefore, the relative influence of Ideas and institution also changed. Third the end of the Soviet bloc mean the emergence of many new countries all these countries had their own independent aspirations and choices. SHOCK THERAPY AND IT CONSEQUENCES Shock therapy refers to the sudden release of price and currency controlled withdrawal of state subsite and immediate trade liberalization within a country usually also including large scale privatization of previously public on assets. CONSEQUENCES A large state-owned industry were put up for sale at throwaway prices .this was known as the largest garage sale. The value of the ruble (Russian currency) declined. Collective farms was removed with no food security. The old trading structure was broken without any alternative. A new Mafia emerged which try to control economic activities by forces. Privatization widen   the gap between rich and poor. The old system of social welfare was destroyed and the government stop all subsites. TENSIONS AND CONFLICTS In Russia to republics, Chechnya and Dagestan, have had violent secessionist movement. In Central Asia Tajikistan witnessed a civil war that went on for 10 years till 2001. In Georgia, the demand for independence has come from two provinces ,resulting in a civil war. In eastern Europe, Czechoslovakia split peacefully into two with the Czechs and and the Slovaks forming independent countries but the most served conflict took place in the Balkan republics of Yugoslavia INDIA AND POST COMMUNIST COUNTRIES: Indian relation with Russia and an important aspect of Indian foreign policy. More then so, bilateral agreement have been signed between India and Russia as part of the Indo- Russian strategic agreement of 2001. India stand to benefit from its relationship with Russia on issue like Kashmir, energy supply sharing information on international terrorism access to Central Asia etc. Russia stands on benefit for its relationship with India on issues like the assistance of India during its oil crisis India is the second largest market for Russia. Arab Spring It refers to a democratic upspring that arose independently and spread  across the Arab world started in 2009 Origin: Tunisia In December And quickly took hold In Egypt, Libya, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia And Japan. Causes:- Repression of human rights Poverty, no freedom Lots of disparity Press censorship Unemployment When did revolution start? Revolution started in Tunisia and begin with a single man in the markets of Tunisia spread to thousands of demanding political change for entire region. The self-immolation of Muhammad Bouazizi( a common man), this created a sweeping way that respected none of the artificial drawn borders in the Muslim world. The Role Of Hosni Mubarak is it was brought to an end after days of mass protest. Tunisia is the only country where the revolutionaries outwitted the counter revolutionaries. This country transitioned to a  multiparty democracy. Middle East crisis of Afghanistan On 11 in September 2001 ,attacks in America killed nearly 3,000 people Osama bin Laden the head of Islamic terror group Al-Qaeda was identified as a man responsible. The Taliban, Radical Islamist who ran Afghanistan and protected bin Laden who refuse to handover him. A month after 9/11 the US launched air strikes against Afghanistan and this is known as "operation enduring freedom" against Al-Qaida And Tailem region. Some prisoners were brought to Guantanamo bay , a US naval base in Cuba where international law doesn't apply. Gulf war The gulf war lasted between August 1990 and January 1991 ,was an international conflict that erupted after Iraq , under dictator  Saddam Husain (one of the most cruel ruler in world history.) He invaded Kuwait. The US. mandated the liberation of Kuwait by force. The US President George HW bush. Hailed The emergence of a new World order Coalition force of 6,60000 troops from 34 countries fought against Iraq and defeated it. The first gulf war is also known as operation desert storm ( given by UN) An American general Noman Schwarzkopf led  by UN and coalition nearly 75% force is were from the US. Iraqi president , Saddam Hussein defeated and force to withdraw from Kuwait. The war revealed the vast technological gap between the US military capability and that of other states. Use of smart bombs by US led some observer to call this a "computer war ". Commonwealth Of Independent State Dissolution of USSR , lead to establishment of (CIS.) The founding state of the CIS Included Belarus, Russia And Ukraine. The commonwealth of independent state is a regional intergovernmental organization of the former Soviet republics  which is mainly focuses on political ,economic and environmental issues. Currently there are 12 members Nations part of it.

Ideas Of Development Development ( modernization ) was associated with the ideas of growth, material growth and scientific rationality. However, India adopted mixed economy in which some characteristics of liberal- capitalist model and some are of socialist as in USSR. Planning The planning commission was an institution in the Government of India which formulated India's five year plan. Formed -  15 March,1950 Dissolved -15 August 2014 by PM Narendra Modi Planning commission first chairperson was Jawaharlal Nehru 1950 -1964. Planning commission has been replaced by new institution NITI Aayog NITI AAYOG In the Era of globalization, specially in the 21st century planning commission became ineffective and irrelevant. Hence, during independence day speech on 15 August, 2014 PM Modi did abolition of the planning commission. NITI Aayog is a successor of Planning Commission constituted on 1st January 2015. Objective: To Provide The Necessary And Technical Advice to The Union Government Regarding Policy Making At The Centre And State Levels. The PM Of India Is The Ex Officio Chairman Of NITI Aayog And The Vice Chairperson Of NITI Aayog Appointed By Him. First Vice Chairperson- Arvind Panagariya Current Vice Chairperson- Shri Suman Bery NITI AAYOG acts as think tank of the union government. It works to harmonies the interest of national security and economic policy and to work to prepare strategic and long-term framework of policy and program. NITI Aayog adopted "bottom-up approach" to ensure equal participation of all states in the country The first five year plan (1951 to 1956) K.N. Raj economist involved in drafting the plan. He argued that India should hasten  slowly for the first two decades as fast rate of development might endanger democracy. Objectives:- To reform the country's economy To solve the food problem To raise the standard of living. To provide Social and economic justice. Achievements:- Increase in national income agricultural development industrial production irrigation and railway development The second five year plan (1956 to 1961) From April 1 ,1956 to May 31 ,1961. Purpose of the plan was to establish ' socialist pattern of society". It was drafted by a team of economist and winners under the leadership of PC Mahalanobis. Objectives:- Large of expansion of employment opportunities. Sustainable increase in the national income to raise the level of living. Rapid industrialization with special emphasis on the development on basic and heavy industries. Reduction of inequalities in income and wealth and a more even distribution of economic power. Achievements:- Foreign exchange Agricultural development Power Programmes Industrial development General development The Third Five Year Plan (1961 To 1966) There was a financial crisis ,a foreign exchange crisis, and food crises during third five year plan from 1961-66. This plan designed to provide India a self send rating and self Reliance economy. (continuation of previous plan) Objectives : To secure and income National of over 5% annum, the pattern of investment being designed so as to sustain this rate of growth during the subsequent plans. To achieve self sufficiency in food grains and increase agricultural production to meet the requirement industry and exports. To establish progressively greater equality of opportunity and to bring about reduction in the disparities in income. Achievements National income Agricultural and power development Industrial development Village and small scale industries. Railway development. Decentralized Planning Kerala plan is known as decentralized planning. The development was focus on education, health ,landform, effective food production and poverty alleviation. Despite low per capita incomes and relatively weak industrial base achieved nearly total literacy rate etc. Key Controversies 1. Agriculture versus industry Gandhian economist like J C Kuma Rappa proposed an alternative blueprint that put greater emphasis on rural industrialization. Chaudhary Charan Singh also emphasized on keeping agriculture. 2.Public Vs Private Sector India adopted mixed economy. Much of the agriculture ,trade and industry were left in private hands. State controlled key heavy industries, provided industrial infrastructure , related trade and made some crucial intervention in agriculture. State intervened only in those areas where the private sector was not prepared to go. Major Outcomes 1. Foundations In this period the foundations of India's future economic growth were laid. These included mega dams. (A) Bhangra Nangal dam (B) Hirakund for irrigation and power generation. Some of the heavy industries and public sector- Steel plants. Oil refineries Defense production. Infrastructure for transport and communication was improved substantially. 2.Land reforms Abolition of the colonial system of zamindari This brought small pieces of land together in one place so that the farm of size could become viable for agriculture. Laws were made to put an upper limit or' ceiling' to how much agriculture land one person could own. Tenants  who worked on someone else's land were given legal security against eviction. The Green Revolution 1960 Country faced food crisis during 1940 to 1970. The government adopted a new strategy for agriculture in order to ensure food sufficiency. Provided facilities to small farmers to put more resources and increase production. However  not all farmers Got  benefit of this revolution except Punjab, Haryana ,UP ,etc. farmers more than any state farmers. Consequences Contrast between poor peasantry  and landlords produced. Green revolution resulted  in the rise of middle peasants  sections Operation Flood Operation flood ,launched in 1970 ,was a project of India's National dairy development programme it transform India form milk deficient  nation into the largest milk producer of  word. The process ha s been called the white revolution Amul Cooperative Dairy was the engine behind the success of the program. Dr.Verghese Kurein known as "father of white revolution". Later development Period from 1967 onwards witnessed many new restrictions on private industry. Fourteen private banks were nationalized . Between 1950 and 1980 ,the Indian economy grow at sluggish per annum rate of 3 to 3.5% National Development Council (NDC) National Development Council (NDC) or the Rastriya Vikas Parishad is the apex body for decision making and deliberations on development matters in India presided over by the Prime Minister. National Development Council was set up on August 6, 1952, To strengthen and mobilize the effort and resources of the nation in support of the Plan, to promote common economic policies in all vital spheres, and to ensure the balanced and rapid development of all parts of the country. Appointment and Composition of NDC The National Development Council comprises the following members – Indian Prime Minister All the Union Cabinet Ministers Chief Ministers of all States or their substitutes Representatives of the union territories and The members of the NITI Aayog (erstwhile planning commission). The secretary of the Planning Commission is also the secretary of the NDC. The administrative assistance is also provided by the Planning Commission. The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the Council. The Council ordinarily meets twice a year. It is interesting to note that the Council ordinarily passes no resolution formally. The practice is to have a complete record of discussion and gather out of it general trends pinpointing particular conclusions. Decisions are usually unanimous. Objectives of the National Development Council NDC is an advisory body to the Planning Commission. The major objectives of NDC can be listed below: To strengthen and mobilize the effort and resources of the nation in support of the Plan. To promote common economic policies in all vital spheres. To ensure the balanced and rapid development of all parts of the country. In addition to this, NDC provides a platform for all the states to discuss their problems and issues related to development. Thus, it secures the cooperation of the states in the execution of developmental plans.

Hi people, I'm feeling so great to be back here and writing this blog. It's been almost 6 months to me since I took break from this content creation. I have been an part of content creation since 2017 and I love to create videos on academics. Don't worry, I'm not going to mention my journey here because I have something exciting to share with you all. What is Studyship Crash Course? Crash Course basically means completing syllabus of specific subjects within a time limit. So the syllabus usually it takes a year to complete. I would help to complete within 2 months That's what I do. I help my students in completing their syllabus within 2 months. In my crash course initially we were providing only subjects like history and Political science but from last few month we started for Ba hons. political science Is it a Paid Course ? Hmm,toh fee deni padegi? Yes,it's a paid course. Students have to pay as per their subjects . Fee amount is fixed for every student. But trust me, whatever fee we are asking for it is gonna worth it. Fee which we ask to students is of just the efforts we put into our lectures and from that material we provide to them. For fee regarding info, you can text me on whatsapp:- 6393665726 Will it be live class or recorded sessions? We provide live classes on zoom app,initially we did this on skype then later shifted to zoom. After each session,students can get access to recorded session in case they miss their class due to uncertain reasons. You'll be added into private telegram group there link will be shared daily for classes and you can join sessions. Make sure it's only you who can take classes ,sharing and distribution of class links and material may cause expulsion from our batch. Will you be conducting tests or will provide last year papers? Ok! Something important to discuss. One of the biggest mistake studyship did in its earlier days, we missed students tests despite promising them and I accept my mistake here. And that's why we are more focusing on to provide tests each Sunday from now, yes believe me, we are doing it. I don't want students to keep in dark, we do not provide direct last year paper but the study material which we provide in the beginning of our course is completely based on last year papers. So no worries! For humanities stream students, answer writing is the key. I personally mentor students to improve their answer writing. How can we trust the quality of course? Firstly, studyship do not provide any demo classes so it might be a doubt for you ,what if you won't like the course? That's why we clear everything before the course. It's pretty simple, one thing that I'm damn sure is our lecture quality won't be ever compromised. Secondly, the biggest mistake we did in early days, missed the significance of schedule and this somewhere troubled our students a lot. As I said, earlier days so now it's not gonna be repeated. I'm mentioning here all our previous mistakes too, I don't want to sell you something with fake promises. Yes we did mistake and the good thing is have corrected it. CLASS 12TH CRASH COURSE BA HONS. POL.SCIENCE How can you join the course? For joining course, you just need to fill google form to give your all details. We have started our new batch for session 2022-23 from 11th July,2022. You can register from here for 12th CRASH COURSE. If planning to join course for BA Hons Political science. Payment details are given in the form,one can pay via net banking or UPI as per their convenience. As soon as you'll pay us,send the screenshot on whatsapp as well as attach in google form. After confirmation,you'll be added in telegram group and channel. That's it, my friend Instagram Still have queries? Reach out to us on instagram or whatsapp +6393665726

Studyship Crash Course started in 2020 January, I did it for session 2019-20 session. And successfully joined by around +600 students till now and still joining. This was the first crash course started by me for humanities stream students, as there weren't any such courses for Humanities/Arts students. But what we do in crash course,what I provide them in course? What is Studyship Crash Course? Crash Course basically means completing syllabus of specific subjects with a time limit. So the syllabus for which it takes a year to complete, with the help of a teacher. That's what I do. I help my students in completing their syllabus within 2 months. In my crash course initially we were providing only subjects like history and Political science but from last month we started for Geography and Economics too. Is it a Paid Course ? Hmm,toh fee deni padegi? Yes,it's a paid course. Students have to pay as per their subjects . Fee amount is fixed for every student. But trust me, whatever fee we are asking for it is gonna worth it. Fee which we ask to students is of just the efforts we put into our lectures and from that material we provide to them. For fee regarding info, you can text us on whatsapp:- 6393665726 Will it be live class or recorded sessions? We provide live classes on zoom app,initially we did this on skype then later shifted to zoom. After each session,students can get access to recorded session in case they miss their class due to uncertain reasons. You'll be added into private telegram group there link will be shared daily for classes and you can join sessions. Will you be conducting tests or will provide last year papers? Ok! Something important to discuss. One of the biggest mistake studyship did in its earlier days, we missed students tests despite promising them and I accept my mistake here. And that's why we are more focusing on to provide tests each Sunday from now, yes believe me, we are doing it. I don't want students to keep in dark, we do not provide direct last year paper but the study material which we provide in the beginning of our course is completely based on last year papers. So no worries! How can we trust the quality of course? Firstly, studyship do not provide any demo classes so it might be a doubt for you ,what if you won't like the course? That's why we clear everything before the course. It's pretty simple, one thing that I'm damn sure is our lecture quality won't be ever compromised. Secondly, the biggest mistake we did in early days, missed the significance of schedule and this somewhere troubled our students a lot. As I said, earlier days so now it's not gonna be repeated. I'm mentioning here all our previous mistakes too, I don't want to sell you something with fake promises. Yes we did mistake and the good thing is have corrected it. How can we join the course? I'm ready to join right now. For joining course, you just need to fill our google form to give your all details. We have started our new batch for session 2021-22 from 11th June of this month. Below I'll provide link of form in order to register for the course. Payment details are given in form,one can pay us via net banking or UPI as per their convenience. As soon as you'll pay us,send the screenshot to us on whatsapp as well as attach in google form. After confirmation,you'll be added in telegram group and channel. That's it,all the study material will be shared with you and you'll be with us for next 2 months. Form link to register Instagram Still have queries? Reach out to us on instagram or whatsapp +6393665726

Remember goofing around in our classrooms with our friends regarding plans after 12th?? I'm sure you would have done this. As soon as we go apart after schools ,our plans get changed so our paths. If you wandering to take admission in DU and looking around ki yrr course konsa le,toh mein hu naa. I'm your DU buddy to help you in choosing the right course for you. So let's get in to know more. Why DU Courses are popular among its students? Securing admission in DU isn't a difficult task but yup securing admission in DU with one's choice course is actually not a cup of cake for everyone. Delhi university is among one of the top universities in India. It's courses popular among its students not only because of their curriculum but also because the way they get to know about that specific field beyond books or traditional method. The way students get introduced to its topic is actually unique in comparison to any other university in India. Well qualified professors and their friendly nature actually enhance student's experience What are most popular courses in DU for UG Courses? See popularity really matters,it tells scope and other aspects help you out in choosing the right one for you. All the courses list here I'm gonna share with you in on the basis of last few years. 1. ENGLISH HONORS English honors is the top course among DU students. According to 2019, 1,42,970 students registered for English hons. If you are the one who loves literature, read and write poetry, read novels, then this is the course for you to discover yourself, here you go! 2. BA. HONS POLITICAL SCIENCE To get in DU 's top colleges for political science is tough task bruh! According to 2019, 1,30,240 students registered for this course, merely for nearly 3,000 seats. Don't you think it is difficult just like UPSC, may be it is! 3. BA PROGRAMME Not everyone want to to go for Hons ,some just don't wanted to be discipline specific, so they opt for simple BA programme course. Around 1,25,519 registration were received to this course and you know what, DU provides more admissions in programme in contrast to honors. 4. BA (Hons) Economics Eco hons is the choice popularly among commerce and arts stream students. 1,24,538 total registration were received to this course. Point should be noted here buddy,DU doesn't accept applications for this course if candidate do not have maths in their 12th. 5. HISTORY HONORS Do not go for this course merely because you wanna prepare for UPSC and history honos could be your optional, nope big mistake guys! Opt for this course only because you don't want any page of history unturn for yourself. 1,20,590 registration for history honors in 2019. CONCLUSION Hence there are many courses as well besides these 5 courses. You should not conclude this article as there isn't scope in any other courses. To sum up all,my only advice to you people is go as per your interest rather than popularity or crowd. Without interest in particular course merely because other's were going for it gonna waste your 3 years of graduation. So choose wisely!