Unit-5 CHINA Notes | Comparative Political System DSC-17 | DU SEMESTER 6 NOTES

Introduction 

• China has a long political history, starting from ancient Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties.

• Qin Shi Huang unified China in 221 BC, beginning a tradition of centralized rule.

• Periods of centralization and decentralization occurred throughout imperial China.

• Foreign intervention and internal rebellions led to the fall of the Qing Dynasty in the early 20th century.

• The Republic of China was established in 1911, but political instability followed.

• In 1949, the Communist Party of China (CPC), led by Mao Zedong, founded the People’s Republic of China.

• Mao introduced socialist campaigns like the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution to reshape society and the economy.

• Today, China follows a one-party system, where the CPC controls all major political and policy decisions.

• Political dissent is suppressed, and the CPC holds dominant power.

• Under Xi Jinping, China is focused on expanding its global influence in military, economy, and diplomacy.

• Initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative aim to increase China's international trade and reach.

Political Traditions and Constitutional Development of China 

Historical Background and Foundation

• In 1949, the Communist Party of China (CPC) under Mao Zedong established the People’s Republic of China, ending imperial rule.

• A one-party socialist state was formed, giving full control to the CPC.

Constitutional Development

• 1954: China’s first constitution was introduced, promoting socialism, equal rights, public ownership, and collectivization.

• 1958: Mao launched the Great Leap Forward to boost agriculture and industry — it failed, leading to famine and policy changes.

• 1978: Under Deng Xiaoping, China began economic reforms with the Open Door Policy, promoting trade and market economy, while maintaining political one-party rule.

• 1982: A new constitution was adopted (still in use today), giving limited citizen rights but reaffirming CPC control.

Modern Reforms

• 1990s–2000s: The constitution was amended to support a socialist market economy and global economic integration, without altering the political system.

• 2018: Under Xi Jinping, the presidential term limit was removed, allowing indefinite rule. Centralization of power increased further.

Main Features of China’s Constitution

• Declares China a socialist state under CPC leadership.

• Communist Party supremacy is central to governance.

• Follows democratic centralism: local input is allowed, but final authority lies with the center.

• Citizens have rights (e.g., education, health, equality) but must obey laws and be loyal to the state.

• Collective/state ownership is prioritized; private property is limited.

• Rule of law exists, but always under CPC guidance.

• The constitution is the supreme law, and amendments can only be made by the National People’s Congress.

Social and Economic Dimensions of Chinese Politics 

1. Establishment of the People’s Republic of China (1949)

• Founded by the Communist Party of China (CPC) under Mao Zedong.

• Replaced centuries of imperial rule and the short-lived Republic of China.

• Adopted a one-party socialist state model, where the CPC controlled all key political and administrative functions.

2. Population and Natural Resources

• China has the world’s largest population (about 20% of global total).

• However, only 7% of China's land is arable, leading to food scarcity issues.

• Rich in natural resources (coal, water power, minerals), but lacked capital and technology to utilize them effectively.

• Realization that population growth must be matched with productivity increases.

3. Early Socio-Economic Reforms

• Land reforms redistributed land from landlords to peasants.

• Anti-social campaigns targeted vices like opium use and prostitution.

• Massive efforts were made to politically consolidate and build a socialist economy.

4. Five-Year Plans and Collectivization

• The First Five-Year Plan (1953–1957) emphasized heavy industry with Soviet help.

• Focus on collectivizing agriculture through forming cooperatives.

• Mixed success: industrial growth occurred, but agricultural results were poor.

5. Education Policy

• In 1949, 80% of China’s population was illiterate.

• The government promoted mass literacy campaigns, simplified the script and language, and expanded basic education.

• Education was ideologically driven—to create loyal, informed citizens who support socialism.

  
  

6. Marriage and Family Reforms

• Traditional family structure was patriarchal and male-dominated.

• 1950 Marriage Law abolished arranged marriages, child marriage, and polygamy.

• Promoted gender equality and women’s rights as part of socialist transformation.

  
  

7. Maoist Development Path

• Mao adapted Marxism to China’s conditions by emphasizing the peasantry over the urban proletariat.

• Believed that political consciousness and revolutionary spirit were more important than just economic growth.

• Mass mobilization campaigns were used to enforce policies.

  
  

8. Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)

• Aimed to purge capitalist and traditional elements and reinstate Maoist ideology.

• Targeted “Four Olds”: Old customs, old culture, old habits, old ideas.

• Sparked by Mao’s belief that party leaders (like Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping) were deviating from socialism.

  
  

Red Guards and Social Upheaval

• Red Guards (mostly students) were mobilized to enforce revolutionary ideals.

• Attacked intellectuals, destroyed cultural relics, and humiliated or killed opponents.

• Universities closed, officials purged, and people sent to rural areas for “re-education through labor”.

  
  

Consequences of the Cultural Revolution

• Administrative and educational systems collapsed.

• Mass violence, persecution, and deaths occurred.

• Millions were imprisoned or tortured; many died.

• After Mao’s death (1976), the Cultural Revolution was officially criticized as a serious mistake.

9. Post-Mao Reforms: Deng Xiaoping’s Era (1978 onward)

• Deng introduced economic reforms under the Open Door Policy.

• Shifted to a "socialist market economy", mixing socialism with capitalist tools.

• Encouraged foreign trade, private investment, and technology development.

• Maintained one-party rule, but opened the economy to the global market.

10. The 1982 Constitution and Beyond

• New Constitution implemented in 1982, still in effect today.

• Recognized some citizen rights (education, employment, health), but emphasized party loyalty and socialist ideology.

• Introduced democratic centralism—local decentralization, but final authority with central leadership.

• Maintains state and collective ownership, though private property is now partially recognized.

11. Xi Jinping’s Leadership and Recent Changes

• Under Xi Jinping, one-party rule was further consolidated.

• 2018 constitutional amendment abolished presidential term limits, allowing Xi to remain in power indefinitely.

• Strengthened centralized leadership, state surveillance, and CPC control over all institutions.

• Launched major international initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative to expand China's global influence.

12. Key Features of China’s Constitution

• Declares China as a socialist state governed by the CPC.

• Upholds democratic centralism.

• Prioritizes collective ownership over private property.

• Recognizes basic citizen rights, but restricts political freedoms.

• The National People’s Congress is the supreme legislative body.

• Laws and constitutional amendments must align with CPC ideology.

Party System 

1. One-Party Dominance under the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

• China’s political system is built on a typical socialist framework dominated by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

• The CCP is the only ruling party with full control over the state apparatus—political, legislative, judicial, military, and administrative.

• The General Secretary of the CCP, who is usually also the President of China and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, holds the highest position of power.

• The CCP has more than 96 million members, making it the largest political organization in the world.

2. Multi Party Cooperation System: Symbolic Participation

• China officially recognizes eight “democratic parties”:

  • Examples include the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang, China Democratic League, and China Association for Promoting Democracy.

• These parties are not opposition parties. Instead, they:

  • Operates under the unified leadership of the CCP.

  • Play consultative roles in policy discussions through bodies like the CPPCC (Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference).

  • Represent specific social sectors such as intellectuals, entrepreneurs, or ethnic minorities.

• Their participation is often termed as "political consultation without competition".

  
  

3. Key Institutions in China’s Party System

A. CCP Central Committee, Politburo, and Standing Committee

• These are the core policymaking bodies of the CCP.

• The Politburo Standing Committee, usually made up of 7 members, is the most powerful political body in the country.

• These institutions:

  • Decide major state policies.

  • Control appointments across all levels of government.

  • Directly influence the judiciary, media, military, and civil society.

B. National People’s Congress (NPC)

• The NPC is technically China’s supreme legislative body, akin to a parliament.

• However, its primary role is rubber-stamping policies already drafted and approved by the CCP leadership.

• The NPC meets annually and has nearly 3,000 delegates representing provinces, the military, and minority groups.

C. CPPCC (Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference)

• Serves as a platform for non-communist voices, including the eight democratic parties and various social organizations.

• Its role is advisory and consensus-building, without legislative or executive power.

4. Centralization of Power

• The CCP’s influence extends to all levels—national, provincial, city, county, and village.

• At every level, Party Secretaries are more powerful than the corresponding government officials (e.g., mayor or governor).

• This ensures uniformity of policy implementation, but also suppresses local autonomy and innovation.

  
  

5. Characteristics of China’s Party System

• No separation of powers: Legislature, executive, and judiciary all operate under CCP oversight.

• No political competition: Elections occur within the party framework, and all candidates are CCP-approved.

• Media and civil society are tightly controlled to prevent criticism or mobilization against the party.

• Ideological emphasis: The system promotes "socialism with Chinese characteristics," blending market reforms with socialist control.

6. Criticisms of the System

Domestic Criticism

• Lack of democratic accountability: Absence of independent opposition or free elections.

• Suppression of dissent: Arrests of journalists, lawyers, and human rights activists.

• Corruption and bureaucracy: Despite anti-corruption campaigns, public dissatisfaction remains over misuse of power.

• Limited civil liberties: Censorship, surveillance, and restrictions on free speech and religion.

International Criticism

• Human rights violations, especially in regions like Xinjiang and Tibet.

• Authoritarian governance model is seen as a challenge to liberal democratic norms.

• Concerns over digital surveillance, forced labor, and restricted press freedom.

7. Support for the System

• Proponents argue that:

  • The system has delivered political stability, especially after the turbulence of the early communist years.

  • It has enabled rapid economic growth—lifting 800 million people out of poverty.

  • China’s strategic planning and long-term governance avoid short-term populism often seen in electoral democracies.

  • The CCP has adapted—especially after 1978—by incorporating market mechanisms into socialism.

8. Recent Developments under Xi Jinping

• Consolidation of power: Xi has emerged as the most powerful leader since Mao, abolishing presidential term limits in 2018.

• Strengthening of ideological education and patriotic training at all levels.

• Tightening of internet controls, media censorship, and social surveillance through platforms like WeChat and Sesame Credit.

• Launch of global influence campaigns such as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

9. Challenges Ahead

• Internally, the system faces:

  • Rising regional disparities.

  • Youth unemployment, economic slowdown, and public dissatisfaction.

  • Demands for accountability, especially from urban middle classes and intellectuals.

• Externally, China confronts:

  • Geopolitical competition, especially with the U.S. and Western allies.

  • Growing scrutiny over its global influence, technology practices, and governance model.

Electoral System 

1. Hierarchical and Controlled Electoral Framework

China’s electoral system operates under the dominant leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and is structured in a hierarchical manner:

• Direct elections are conducted only at the village and township levels.

• At the district, municipal, provincial, and national levels, elections are indirect: representatives are selected by lower-level delegates rather than by the general populace.

This design reflects the CCP's emphasis on centralized political control, while offering limited forms of popular participation at the grassroots.

2. Role and Election of the National People’s Congress (NPC)

• The NPC is China’s highest legislative institution, yet it functions largely to ratify decisions made by the CCP’s top leadership.

• Members of the NPC are elected indirectly by provincial-level congresses, which in turn are composed of lower-level elected representatives.

• The President of China and the Premier (Prime Minister) are formally elected by the NPC, but the candidates are pre-selected and endorsed by the CCP.

While the process gives the appearance of electoral legitimacy, in practice it is a tightly managed and top-down process with no competitive multiparty contests.

3. CCP’s Dominant Role in Elections

• The Chinese Communist Party controls all aspects of the electoral process:

  • Candidate selection and nomination.

  • Approval of final lists of delegates.

  • Supervision of elections, including procedural oversight and propaganda.

• Eight other legally recognized parties (such as the China Democratic League or the Jiusan Society) are allowed to exist, but they cannot form opposition coalitions or independently contest elections. They are part of the “United Front” system, designed to show unity and reinforce CCP legitimacy.

This control ensures that no meaningful political opposition can emerge through the electoral system.

4. Grassroots Elections: Limited Democratic Participation

• The most democratic aspect of China’s electoral system is at the village level, where:

  • Citizens vote directly for Village Committee members, including a village head.

  • These committees are responsible for local affairs, dispute resolution, and basic governance.

• Village elections were institutionalized in the 1980s and 1990s to improve rural administration and reduce corruption, especially after economic reforms.

• However, these elections are often subject to CCP oversight, and candidates typically need the Party's informal approval to win.

Despite limitations, these local elections are relatively competitive compared to higher levels, and serve as a mechanism for feedback and grievance resolution.

5. Criticisms of the Electoral System

Lack of Competition and Transparency

• Critics argue that:

  • The absence of genuine electoral competition undermines legitimacy.

  • Candidates are appointed or screened by the CCP rather than emerging through free nomination.

  • There is limited transparency in the electoral process, especially in vote counting and delegate selection.

Media and Civil Society Restrictions

• Independent monitoring by the media or civil society is not allowed.

• State-controlled media promotes party narratives and suppresses dissenting views.

• Censorship and surveillance during election periods limit public discourse and activism.

Suppression of Independent Candidates

• Individuals who try to run independently—especially at district or municipal levels—often face:

  • Harassment, disqualification, or detention.

  • Intimidation or pressure campaigns from local CCP officials.

6. Government’s Perspective and Justification

• The CCP and Chinese government defend their model by claiming:

  • It promotes political stability, especially in a country with vast size, regional diversity, and historical instability.

  • The system has enabled economic transformation, poverty eradication, and social cohesion.

  • A Western-style multiparty democracy, they argue, could lead to chaos or fragmentation.

• The CCP views its “consultative democracy”—through mechanisms like the CPPCC and internal feedback loops—as more suited to China’s needs than liberal democracy.

7. Reform Proposals and Future Prospects

There are growing calls for reform, both domestically and internationally, focused on:

• Allowing independent candidates, especially in local and district-level elections.

• Increasing transparency in nomination and vote-counting processes.

• Empowering civil society and media to monitor elections and report irregularities.

• Decentralizing control to allow local experimentation with participatory governance.

Some Chinese scholars and reform-minded officials argue that gradual, managed democratization could enhance:

• Public trust in government.

• Policy responsiveness.

• China’s international image, especially amid rising global influence.

8. Cultural and Historical Context

• China’s electoral system must be understood in light of its Confucian traditions, history of dynastic rule, and the trauma of civil war and foreign occupation.

• Many Chinese citizens prioritize stability, economic opportunity, and national pride over procedural democracy.

• This creates popular ambivalence toward reforms that might risk instability.

Unitary State 

1. Centralized Political Power

China is formally a unitary state, meaning that all governing authority flows from the central government, and local or provincial bodies function under central supervision. Unlike federal systems where states or provinces have constitutionally protected powers, in a unitary system like China’s:

• No region holds sovereign authority independent of the center.

• The central government in Beijing sets national policies, which are uniformly implemented across the country.

• Local governments act as administrative extensions of the central state.

This system reflects both practical governance strategy and historical continuity, with a strong emphasis on national unity and political control.

2. Historical and Cultural Foundations of Centralization

China’s preference for centralized governance has deep historical roots:

• Imperial dynasties, from the Qin (221 BCE) to the Qing (1912), operated through bureaucratic hierarchies directed from the imperial court.

• The Confucian tradition emphasized harmony, order, and hierarchical governance, legitimizing top-down rule.

• After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, periods of warlordism, civil war, and foreign invasion further convinced leaders that only a strong central government could ensure stability.

• The Chinese Communist Revolution (1949) under Mao Zedong reinforced the idea that national consolidation was essential for socialist transformation.

Thus, centralization in China is not just political—it is deeply embedded in its cultural and ideological DNA.

3. The Role of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is the core of China’s political and administrative system:

• It operates above the state structure, meaning all key decisions, appointments, and policies are party-driven.

• The CCP maintains a vertical chain of command from the Politburo Standing Committee in Beijing down to local Party committees.

• Every government body—from the State Council to local People’s Congresses—is guided by Party directives.

This intertwining of party and state creates a centralized yet cohesive governance model, with little room for institutional independence.

4. The National People’s Congress (NPC)

As the supreme legislative body, the NPC plays a crucial role in the unitary state:

• Comprising nearly 3,000 members, it includes delegates from all provinces, autonomous regions, and even the military.

• It is empowered to make laws, amend the constitution, and approve national policies, budgets, and appointments.

• Yet, the NPC’s role is largely symbolic. In practice, it rubber-stamps CCP decisions, and its legislative initiatives are controlled by Party leadership.

This reflects the Party’s absolute dominance even within formal constitutional structures.

5. Benefits of the Unitary System in China

The centralized model has been credited with:

• Rapid decision-making in national development and crisis management.

• Efficient policy implementation, especially for large-scale infrastructure, poverty alleviation, or pandemic control.

• Uniform governance, preventing regional fragmentation in a vast, ethnically diverse country.

By centralizing authority, China has been able to mobilize resources effectively, particularly in areas such as economic reform and technological innovation.

6. Economic Decentralization vs. Political Centralization

In the post-1978 economic reform era, China experimented with selective decentralization, particularly:

• Fiscal reforms gave provinces more control over investment and development.

• Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and coastal cities like Shenzhen were granted more autonomy to attract foreign investment and drive innovation.

However, while economic flexibility increased, political power remained centralized:

• Provincial leaders are appointed by the CCP, not elected locally.

• Party discipline inspections and anti-corruption campaigns ensure loyalty to Beijing, not local interests.

This hybrid model of economic decentralization and political centralization is seen as a pillar of China’s growth without democratization.

7. Regional Tensions and Ethnic Autonomy

China designates several areas as “autonomous regions” (e.g., Tibet, Xinjiang, Guangxi), but in practice:

• These regions do not enjoy meaningful autonomy in governance.

• The Party maintains direct control through powerful regional CCP secretaries and security apparatus.

• Movements advocating for greater self-rule or independence are strictly suppressed.

• Cultural assimilation policies—such as promoting Mandarin Chinese over local languages—have sparked unrest and global concern.