UNIT-2 USA NOTES | Comparative Political System DSC-17 | DU SEMESTER 6 NOTES

Introduction

• The USA is a federal republic with 50 states and Washington, D.C. as the capital.

• It also includes five self-governing territories and other regions.

• Located in North America, bordered by Canada, Mexico, Atlantic Ocean, and Pacific Ocean.

• New York City is the largest and most economically important city.

• It is the third largest country by population and area.

• Based on democratic values and individual liberty.

• The US Constitution was adopted in 1787 and is the oldest written constitution still in use.

• Has the world’s largest economy.

• Leads in technology, finance, defence, and innovation.

• Active member of international organizations like the United Nations, NATO, and G7.

• Plays a key role in global politics and security.

• A diverse society with people from various ethnic, religious, and cultural backgrounds.

• Known for its unity in diversity and progressive society.

---

Political Traditions and Constitutional Development of the United States 

1. Historical Background

• Before independence, the 13 American colonies were under British rule.

• In 1776, the colonies declared independence through the Declaration of Independence, led by leaders like Thomas Jefferson.

• After independence, the USA was governed under the Articles of Confederation (1781).

  • It created a loose union of states.

  • The central government was very weak, with no power to tax or enforce laws.

  • States retained most powers, leading to problems like lack of unity and economic coordination.

2. Need for a Stronger Constitution

• The failures of the Articles (e.g., trade disputes between states, lack of common currency) made it clear that a stronger national government was needed.

• This led to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 in Philadelphia.

• Key figures included George Washington, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Benjamin Franklin.

3. Framing of the US Constitution (1787)

• A new written Constitution was adopted in 1787 and implemented in 1789.

• It is the oldest written constitution still in use today.

• The Constitution established:

  • A strong federal government.

  • A system of federalism with powers divided between national and state governments.

  • Checks and balances between the three branches.

  • Protection of individual rights through later amendments.

4. Structure of the US Government

The Constitution created a separation of powers among three branches:

A. Legislature – Congress

• Bicameral (two houses):

  • Senate: 2 members per state (100 total).

  • House of Representatives: Based on population (435 members).

• Powers: Make laws, control budget, declare war, approve treaties and appointments.

B. Executive – President

• Head of State and Government.

• Elected every 4 years through an Electoral College system.

• Powers: Enforce laws, conduct foreign policy, command armed forces, issue executive orders.

C. Judiciary – Supreme Court

• Highest court in the country.

• Appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.

• Powers: Interpret laws, settle disputes, review constitutionality of laws (judicial review).

5. Key Constitutional Principles

• Federalism: Power shared between national and state governments.

• Separation of Powers: Prevents concentration of power.

• Checks and Balances: Each branch limits the powers of the others.

• Popular Sovereignty: Power lies with the people, who elect representatives.

• Rule of Law: Everyone is subject to the law, including leaders.

6. Bill of Rights (1791)

• The first 10 amendments to the Constitution.

• Guarantees civil liberties and individual freedoms.

• Key rights include:

  • Freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly (1st Amendment).

  • Right to bear arms (2nd Amendment).

  • Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures (4th Amendment).

  • Right to a fair trial (6th Amendment).

  • Protection from cruel and unusual punishment (8th Amendment).

7. Major Constitutional Amendments

• 13th Amendment (1865) – Abolished slavery.

• 14th Amendment (1868) – Guaranteed equal protection and citizenship rights.

• 15th Amendment (1870) – Voting rights cannot be denied based on race.

• 19th Amendment (1920) – Gave women the right to vote.

• 24th Amendment (1964) – Prohibited poll taxes in elections.

• 26th Amendment (1971) – Lowered voting age to 18.

8. Landmark Judicial Interpretation

• Marbury vs. Madison (1803):

  • Established the principle of judicial review.

  • Gave courts the power to declare laws unconstitutional.

    
    

• Other significant decisions:

  • Brown vs. Board of Education (1954): Ended racial segregation in schools.

  • Roe vs. Wade (1973): Recognized women's right to abortion (later overturned in 2022).

9. Influence of Social Movements

• Civil Rights Movement (1950s–60s):

  • Led by leaders like Martin Luther King Jr..

  • Achieved the Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965).

• Women's Rights Movement: Pushed for gender equality and reproductive rights.

• Labor and LGBTQ+ Movements: Helped shape inclusive interpretations of the Constitution.

10. Amendment Process

• The US Constitution is rigid:

  • An amendment must be proposed by 2/3 of Congress or 2/3 of state legislatures.

  • Must be ratified by 3/4 of state legislatures or conventions.

• Only 27 amendments have been made in over 230 years.

11. Key Features of the US Constitution

• Written Document – Clear, codified structure.

• Federal System – Division of power between central and state governments.

• Judicial Review – Courts can interpret the Constitution.

• Separation of Powers – Executive, Legislature, Judiciary.

• Bill of Rights – Protection of civil liberties.

• Checks and Balances – Mutual control between branches.

• Presidential System – Executive elected independently.

• Secularism – Separation of church and state.

• Bicameral Legislature – Senate and House of Representatives.

• Democratic Principles – Elections, rule of law, equality.

• Equal Citizenship – No discrimination based on race, gender, or religion.

• Flexibility with Stability – Amended over time to reflect societal changes.

United States: Society and Economy 

1. Diversity and Social Fabric

• The United States is known for its high level of racial, ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity.

• It is home to immigrants from every continent, making it a multi-ethnic and multicultural nation.

• Major ethnic groups include:

  • Whites of European origin

  • African Americans

  • Latino/Hispanic Americans

  • Asian Americans

  • Native Americans

• Religious pluralism is also significant, with Christianity being the majority religion, but also large populations of Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, and others.

• Cultural diversity contributes to the richness of American literature, music, cuisine, film, and festivals.

• The concept of the "American Dream" promotes the belief that every individual, regardless of background, can succeed through hard work and determination.

2. Core Social Values

• Freedom: Personal and political freedoms are central to American life.

• Equality: The principle of equal rights under the law, although not always perfectly realized.

• Opportunity: A society where individuals are encouraged to pursue education, entrepreneurship, and innovation.

3. Social Achievements and Challenges

• Achievements:

  • Strong institutions in education, science, technology, and the arts.

  • Advancements in civil rights and women’s rights.

  • High standards in higher education (e.g., Harvard, MIT, Stanford).

• Challenges:

  • Racial discrimination and inequality still exist in many areas like law enforcement, job opportunities, and education.

  • Political polarization between conservatives and liberals is increasing.

  • Social divisions over immigration, gun laws, abortion rights, and healthcare policies.

  • Homelessness and poverty affect parts of the population despite overall economic prosperity.

4. Economic Overview

• The US economy is the largest in the world by nominal GDP, with a strong influence on global trade and finance.

• It operates primarily on capitalist principles:

  • Private ownership

  • Free markets

  • Limited government interference

• The economy is highly diverse and dynamic, spread across major sectors:

  • Agriculture (e.g., corn, wheat, soy)

  • Manufacturing (e.g., cars, machinery, aerospace)

  • Services (e.g., finance, healthcare, education)

  • Technology (e.g., software, AI, electronics)

5. Innovation and Global Leadership

• The US is a global leader in innovation:

  • Silicon Valley is the heart of global tech innovation (Apple, Google, Meta, etc.).

  • Leading in space exploration (NASA, SpaceX).

  • Dominates pharmaceutical and medical research.

• New York City is the world's financial hub:

  • Wall Street and the New York Stock Exchange are central to global finance.

• The US invests heavily in research and development (R&D), maintaining a competitive edge in technology and science.

6. Energy and Industrial Power

• The US is a major energy producer:

  • World's top producer of shale oil and natural gas.

  • Increasing investments in renewable energy (wind, solar, biofuels).

• Strong infrastructure supports global trade:

  • Large network of highways, railroads, ports, and airports.

7. Economic Inequality

• Economic disparities are a growing concern:

  • The wealthiest 1% hold a disproportionate share of national wealth.

  • Many working-class and low-income families face difficulties in housing, education, and health access.

• Income inequality is especially pronounced in urban and rural areas.

• Health insurance is tied to employment, leading to gaps in healthcare access for the unemployed or underemployed.

8. Resilience and Recovery

• Despite economic crises (e.g., 2008 financial crash, COVID-19 pandemic), the US economy shows strong resilience:

  • Quick recovery through stimulus packages and Federal Reserve policies.

  • Capacity to generate new industries and jobs (e.g., green energy, biotech).

• The entrepreneurial spirit and innovation ecosystems (e.g., startups, venture capital) are vital for growth.

9. Interconnection of Society and Economy

• Social diversity fuels economic innovation:

  • Immigrants and minorities often start businesses and contribute to cultural industries.

• Economic development supports social progress:

  • Better funding for education, healthcare, and public services.

• The two reinforce each other, making the US a globally competitive and culturally rich society.

10. Global Role and Influence

• The US economy shapes global markets through:

  • International trade agreements

  • Multinational corporations

  • Global financial institutions (e.g., World Bank, IMF)

• US cultural and economic models are emulated worldwide.

• It remains a key player in shaping global economic policy, climate strategy, and technological standards.

Party System of the United States 

1. Biparty System

• The U.S. has a two-party dominant system, meaning most political power is held by the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.

• This system leads to political stability, easy government formation, and consistent leadership changes.

• While other parties exist, such as the Green Party and the Libertarian Party, they have very limited influence on national policymaking.

2. Historical Development of Political Parties

• Political parties are not mentioned in the U.S. Constitution.

• Early factions like the Federalists (led by Alexander Hamilton) and Anti-Federalists (led by Thomas Jefferson) were the roots of today’s parties.

• The Democratic Party was formally established in 1828 under Andrew Jackson.

• The Republican Party was formed in 1854 as an anti-slavery party, with Abraham Lincoln as its first successful presidential candidate in 1860.

3. Ideological Differences Between Parties

• Democratic Party:

  • Supports progressive taxation, universal healthcare, climate action, gun control, social justice, and government welfare programs.

  • Generally associated with liberal or left-leaning ideologies.

    
    

• Republican Party:

  • Supports lower taxes, free-market capitalism, strong national defense, individual rights, and traditional values.

  • Associated with conservative or right-leaning ideologies.

• The division also affects views on immigration, abortion, education, and foreign policy.

4. Electoral College and Voting System

• The Electoral College system used in presidential elections benefits a two-party system.

• Most states use a winner-takes-all method, making it nearly impossible for third-party candidates to win electoral votes.

• The First-Past-the-Post voting system discourages smaller parties and coalition governments.

5. Party Organization and Decentralization

• Both parties are highly decentralized, with independent structures at:

  • National level (e.g., Democratic National Committee, Republican National Committee)

  • State level

  • Local level

• This allows parties to reflect local cultures, issues, and voter needs.

• Each party operates its own primary elections, where voters choose the party’s candidates for local, state, and national elections.

6. Campaign-Oriented and Personality-Centered Politics

• U.S. politics is highly campaign-driven, with a focus on:

  • Media advertising

  • Public debates

  • Fundraising (especially from private donors and interest groups)

• Candidates’ personal image, charisma, and communication skills often matter more than party ideology.

• Super PACs (Political Action Committees) and lobbying have a strong influence in campaigns, especially post-Citizens United ruling (2010).

7. Representation and Inclusivity

• While only two major parties dominate, they encompass wide ideological diversity within themselves:

  • E.g., Progressives and Moderates within the Democratic Party

  • Conservatives and Libertarians within the Republican Party

• Parties try to represent diverse population groups based on: Race, Religion, Gender, Geography, Income

• For example, Democrats tend to attract urban voters, minorities, women, and young people, while Republicans often appeal to rural, white, religious, and older voters.

8. Third Parties and Their Influence

• Although third parties rarely win major elections, they:

  • Highlight neglected issues (e.g., environment, civil liberties, electoral reform)

  • Can influence policy by pressuring major parties to adopt new stances

  • Sometimes act as spoilers in close elections (e.g., Ralph Nader in 2000)

• Prominent third parties include:

  • Green Party (environmental focus)

  • Libertarian Party (minimal government, individual freedom)

  • Constitution Party (Christian conservatism)

9. Political Polarization

• In recent decades, the ideological gap between Democrats and Republicans has deepened significantly.

• Key areas of division include:

  • Healthcare (e.g., Affordable Care Act)

  • Climate change

  • Gun laws

  • Immigration policies

  • Voting rights

• This polarization has increased gridlock in Congress and reduced bipartisan cooperation.

• Social media and partisan news outlets have further intensified this divide.

10. Federalism and State-Level Party Politics

• Despite national platforms, each party adjusts its strategy and messaging by state:

  • E.g., A Republican in Texas may campaign differently from a Republican in Vermont.

• Governors and state legislatures may have views that slightly differ from national leadership.

• This reflects America’s federal nature, where states have their own priorities, constitutions, and political cultures.

US Electoral System 

1. Structure and Levels of Elections

• The U.S. electoral system operates at three levels:

  • Federal: Presidential elections, Congressional elections (Senate & House of Representatives).

  • State: Governors, state legislators, and other state offices.

  • Local: City councils, mayors, school boards, and other local governance.

• These elections provide citizens with the opportunity to participate in political decision-making while preserving the basic principles of democracy.

2. The Electoral College and Presidential Elections

• The Electoral College is a unique feature of U.S. elections for selecting the President and Vice President.

  • The President is not directly elected by the popular vote. Instead, a group of electors chosen by each state casts their votes to elect the President.

  • The number of electors per state is based on the state’s population and the number of congressional representatives (Senators + House members).

  • This system ensures that smaller states have a voice in presidential elections, maintaining the federal structure of the U.S.

  
  

  Criticism:

  • The Electoral College can sometimes lead to outcomes where a candidate wins the popular vote but loses the electoral vote, as seen in the 2000 and 2016 elections.

  • This has raised debates about whether to abolish or reform the system to better reflect the will of the people.

3. The First-Past-the-Post System

• The U.S. uses the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system for most elections.

  • In this system, the candidate who receives the most votes in a given constituency wins the election.

  • FPTP tends to benefit the two major political parties (Democrats and Republicans) and disadvantages smaller or third parties.

  • Third-party candidates typically have limited influence, primarily at the local or state level, and rarely win major national offices.

4. Stages of the U.S. Election Process

Primaries and Caucuses

• These are held by political parties to select their presidential candidates.

• Primaries are state-run elections where voters select their preferred candidate.

• Caucuses are party-run events where voters meet to discuss and select candidates.

• The outcome of primaries and caucuses determines who will represent each party in the National Convention.

National Convention

• After primaries and caucuses, each party holds a National Convention to formally nominate its presidential candidate and set the party’s platform.

General Election

• The general election is held on the first Tuesday of November. Voters cast their ballots for one of the presidential candidates.

• The candidate with the most votes in each state wins the electoral votes for that state.

5. Voter Registration and Voting Process

• Voter Registration

  • Unlike many countries, voter registration in the U.S. is not automatic. Voters must actively register to vote.

  • The process varies by state, leading to differences in how eligible voters are able to register.

  • Some states offer automatic voter registration or same-day registration while others have strict voter ID laws or require proof of residence.

    
    

• Voting Methods

  • Voters can cast their votes using electronic voting machines or paper ballots.

  • Mail-in ballots are used extensively, particularly during the 2020 elections when the COVID-19 pandemic made in-person voting more difficult.

  • Absentee ballots are also available for voters who cannot vote in person.

    
    

• Security

  • Due to growing concerns over cybersecurity, the U.S. has been working to enhance the security of elections.

  • Efforts include improving the integrity of electronic voting systems and ensuring voter privacy.

6. Money and Influence in Elections

• The role of money in U.S. elections is profound and has grown significantly over time, especially following the 2010 Supreme Court ruling in Citizens United v. FEC.

  • The ruling removed restrictions on political donations, allowing super PACs (Political Action Committees) and wealthy individuals to contribute unlimited funds to campaigns.

  • This has increased the influence of big-money donors and special interest groups in politics, leading to concerns about the inequality it creates in the election process.

  • Critics argue that this results in a disproportionate influence for the wealthiest Americans, giving them greater political power than average voters.

7. State Autonomy and Election Rules

• Each state has the autonomy to set its own election laws and procedures. This has led to lack of uniformity across the country in various aspects of the election process, such as:

  • Voter registration rules

  • Voting methods (electronic, absentee, etc.)

  • Early voting options

• While this decentralization respects states' rights and accommodates local conditions, it has sometimes led to inconsistencies and confusion among voters, particularly when laws change unexpectedly.

8. The Debate for Electoral Reform

• There is an ongoing debate in the U.S. over whether the electoral system needs reforms:

  • Abolishing the Electoral College: Critics argue that the Electoral College undermines the principle of one person, one vote and leads to disproportionate representation.

  • Simplifying the voting process: Some propose making voter registration easier and standardizing election procedures to ensure greater accessibility and inclusivity.

  • Reducing the influence of money: There are calls for reforming campaign finance to reduce the impact of super PACs and wealthy donors on elections.

9. Challenges and Criticism of the U.S. Electoral System

• Polarization: The system has contributed to increasing political polarization between the two major parties, especially as the influence of money has entrenched partisanship.

• Voter Disenfranchisement: Issues like voter ID laws, gerrymandering, and limited access to polling stations have been criticized for disproportionately affecting minorities, the poor, and other vulnerable groups, making it harder for them to participate in elections.

• Third-Party Limitations: The First-Past-the-Post system and the Electoral College restrict the ability of third-party candidates to gain significant political power, even if they have substantial public support.

Federal System

1. Federal Structure

• The United States operates under a federal system, which means that power is divided between the national (federal) government and the 50 states.

• This system is grounded in the U.S. Constitution, adopted in 1787, which provides a framework for balancing national unity with the autonomy of individual states.

• The Constitution establishes a separation of powers by dividing government functions into three main branches:

  • Executive: Headed by the President, responsible for enforcing laws and overseeing federal agencies.

  • Legislature: The Congress, consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives, creates laws and allocates government spending.

  • Judiciary: The Supreme Court and lower courts interpret the laws and ensure their consistency with the Constitution.

• These branches are designed to be independent, but they also act as checks and balances on each other to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

2. Division of Powers between Federal and State Governments

• In the U.S. federal system, the federal government has broad, overarching responsibilities, including:

  • Defense and national security.

  • Foreign relations and the treaty-making power.

  • Monetary policy, including the regulation of currency and financial institutions.

• Meanwhile, the states hold autonomous authority in areas such as:

  • Education: Each state controls its own public education system.

  • Law enforcement: States have their own police forces and justice systems.

  • Local governance: States oversee the running of local governments, including counties, cities, and towns.

  
  

  Exclusive Powers of the Federal Government:

  • Powers explicitly assigned to the federal government by the Constitution, such as declaring war, issuing currency, and regulating interstate commerce.

  
  

  Tenth Amendment:

  • The Tenth Amendment of the U.S. The Constitution protects states' rights by stating that powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved for the states or the people.

3. Unitary Elements in the Federal System

• While the U.S. follows a federal system, it also contains unitary elements, where federal authority takes precedence over state power:

  • Constitutional Supremacy: Federal laws, along with the U.S. Constitution, hold supreme authority over state laws. This principle is established through the Supremacy Clause.

  • Conflict Resolution: In cases where state laws conflict with federal laws, the federal law takes priority. The Supreme Court plays a key role in resolving such disputes and interpreting the limits of state and federal powers.

4. Role of the Supreme Court

• The U.S. The Supreme Court is pivotal in the federal system, especially in interpreting the Constitution and resolving disputes between the federal and state governments.

• It serves as the final authority in deciding issues of constitutional law and the balance of power between the national and state governments.

• Landmark decisions, such as Brown v. Board of Education (1954), have shaped the relationship between state and federal power.

5. Cooperative and Competitive Federalism

Cooperative Federalism:

• In certain policy areas, the federal and state governments collaborate to achieve common goals. Examples include:

  • Education: Federal and state governments work together to fund and regulate education.

  • Transportation: Federal funds are often allocated to state infrastructure projects.

  • Health Care: Programs like Medicaid involve both federal and state governments in providing health services.

Competitive Federalism:

• States compete with each other for resources, businesses, and residents. This can lead to:

  • Tax competition: States may adjust their tax rates to attract businesses and residents.

  • Policy innovation: States may experiment with new policies in areas like health care, environmental protection, and criminal justice to see what works best.

6. Tensions Between Federal and State Power

• The U.S. has experienced significant tensions between federal and state governments throughout its history, particularly when states challenge federal authority or seek to assert their own rights.

  
  

  • Civil War (1861-1865): The most extreme example of tension between federal and state power. The war was largely driven by states' rights (particularly over slavery) and the conflict over whether states could secede from the Union. The war reaffirmed the supremacy of the federal government.

  • Modern-Day Issues:

    • Civil Rights Movement: The federal government’s intervention in civil rights led to tension with southern states that resisted desegregation.

    • Health Care Reform: The Affordable Care Act (2010) led to disputes over the extent of federal control over state-run healthcare systems.

    • Environmental Legislation: Federal laws, such as those related to environmental protection, sometimes clash with state laws and priorities.

  
  

7. Equality of States and Representation

• The Constitution ensures that all states are treated equally, despite differences in size, population, and wealth.

  • Senate Representation: Each state is allotted two Senators, regardless of population size. This ensures that small states have equal representation in the Senate.

  • House of Representatives: Representation is based on population, with larger states having more representatives. This system ensures a balance of power between large and small states.

Conclusion

To sum up, the United States of America’s system of governance is a dynamic blend of constitutional flexibility, democratic principles, and a federal structure that has enabled the country to:

• Address internal diversity,

• Adapt to societal changes,

• Ensure political stability and progress.

While it faces ongoing challenges, particularly in the areas of social justice and economic inequality, the country’s governance system remains an enduring example of how a nation can maintain a commitment to democratic values and civil rights, while accommodating both tradition and modernity. Through a combination of its foundational principles, constitutional adaptability, and the ability to meet emerging challenges, the U.S. continues to uphold a governance model that remains a beacon of democratic promise globally.