Unit-3 Brazil Notes | Comparative Political System DSC-17 | DU SEMESTER 6 NOTES

Introduction 

• Official Name: Federative Republic of Brazil.

• Largest and most populous country in South America; known for natural beauty, including the Amazon rainforest.

• Colonized by Portugal in 1500 AD.

• Mixed population of Portuguese, Africans, indigenous peoples, and other European and Asian communities.

• Portuguese is the official language; other spoken languages include Spanish, German, Italian, and local dialects.

• Rich traditions, varied customs, multiple religions, and a multicultural society.

• Sharp divisions between rich and poor, and between urban and rural populations.

• Major cities (e.g., Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Brasília) are economically developed; rural regions face poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment.

• One of the world’s largest economies; key sectors include agriculture, mining, oil, and manufacturing.

• Democratic system based on federalism, constitutional rights, and social justice.

• Ongoing issues with inequality and governance imbalances, but supported by a strong constitutional framework.

• Brazil has built a democratic structure that addresses its diverse and complex socio-economic realities.

History of Constitutional Development in Brazil 

• 1824 Constitution: Brazil’s first constitution came after independence from Portugal, under Emperor Pedro I. It created a centralized constitutional monarchy. The emperor had excessive powers through the "Moderating Power," allowing him to interfere with all branches of government. Voting was restricted to property-owning males, excluding large segments of society.

• 1891 Constitution: After the fall of the monarchy and the proclamation of the republic in 1889, Brazil adopted a federal republican constitution influenced by the U.S. model. It established a formal separation of powers and granted autonomy to states. However, real power remained with the wealthy elite, especially coffee plantation owners, and socio-economic inequality remained high.

• 1934 Constitution: Brought by Getúlio Vargas after political unrest, it introduced progressive reforms, including women’s suffrage, labor rights, and social protections. It attempted to democratize Brazil’s political system and include the working class, but remained short-lived.

• 1937 Constitution: Vargas dissolved the 1934 Constitution and imposed the "Estado Novo" (New State), creating an authoritarian regime. Civil liberties were restricted, censorship increased, and political parties were banned.

• 1946 Constitution: Following the end of Vargas’ authoritarian regime after World War II, this constitution restored democracy. It reinforced individual freedoms, civil rights, and the federal structure. However, it failed to eliminate structural social inequalities.

• 1967 Constitution (amended 1969): Introduced under military rule after a 1964 coup. It centralized power in the executive, restricted political freedoms, and legalized authoritarian practices. Marked by censorship, suppression of dissent, and human rights abuses.

• 1988 Constitution: Known as the “Citizen’s Constitution”, it marked Brazil’s return to democracy. It is the most inclusive and rights-based constitution in the country’s history, emphasizing democratic governance, social justice, and human rights.

Key Features of the 1988 Constitution of Brazil

• Democratic Governance: It guarantees a democratic form of government with a clear separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches. The Constitution ensures that government authority stems from the people.

• Federal System: Brazil is a federative republic composed of the Union (central government), 26 states, municipalities, and the Federal District (Brasília). Each level has political and administrative autonomy.

• Fundamental Rights: The Constitution guarantees an extensive list of civil, political, social, economic, and cultural rights—including the right to life, dignity, equality, education, health, work, and social security.

• Popular Sovereignty: Political power belongs to the people, who exercise it through universal suffrage, referenda, plebiscites, and citizen initiatives.

• Secular State: It establishes a secular government, ensuring religious freedom and the separation of church and state.

• Human Rights Protections: Emphasizes labour rights, welfare provisions, environmental protections, and protections for women, children, minorities, and indigenous groups.

• Independent Judiciary: The Supreme Federal Court (STF) is the highest court and has the power of judicial review. Courts operate independently of the executive and legislative branches.

• Political Pluralism: Encourages the multiparty system, freedom of speech, press freedom, and the free organization of civil society.

• Amendment Process: The Constitution can be amended, but the process is rigorous. Constitutional amendments require approval by a supermajority in both chambers of the National Congress, ensuring stability and deliberation.

Brazil: Social Dimension of Brazilian Politics 

• Brazil’s social structure is complex and historically shaped by Portuguese colonialism, which introduced racial hierarchy and systemic inequality.

• The population includes whites, blacks, indigenous peoples, and mixed-race groups, with white and wealthy classes enjoying more privileges, while black and mixed-race communities often face poverty, discrimination, and limited opportunities.

• Brazil is ethnically and culturally diverse, influenced by African, Portuguese, Native American, European, and Asian heritage, leading to a rich cultural identity but also social stratification.

• Economic inequality is a major issue—urban areas like São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro enjoy prosperity, while rural areas suffer from poverty, underdevelopment, unemployment, and poor access to education and healthcare.

• Regional and class-based disparities have led to social conflicts and political demands for reform.

• Social movements like the Movimento dos Sem Terra (Landless Workers' Movement) and Movimento Negro (Black Movement) campaign for land reform, education, healthcare, and job equality, especially for marginalized communities.

• The rights of women and LGBTQ+ people have gained political prominence:

  (i) Women's rights movements focus on equal pay, education, legal protections against violence, and political participation.

(ii) Same-sex marriage is legally recognized, and LGBTQ+ rights have seen progress, although social stigma and discrimination persist.

• The 1988 Constitution guarantees civil, social, and economic rights, including education, health, social security, and anti-discrimination laws. However, implementation gaps, resource inequalities, and bureaucratic inefficiencies limit the practical realization of these rights.

• Local governments in poorer regions often lack resources and depend heavily on federal aid, while wealthier areas continue to advance, creating regional imbalances that influence political agendas and election strategies.

• Issues of ethnic identity, especially for black and indigenous communities, remain central to Brazil’s political debates. Despite policy efforts, social inclusion and equity for these groups are still unresolved challenges.

  
  

Economic Dimension of Brazilian Politics  

Historical Roots of Economic Inequality

• Brazil’s high economic inequality originates from its colonial-era social structure, where land and wealth were concentrated among a few elite families.

• Portuguese colonization laid the foundation for racial and class hierarchies, which continued into modern times.

• These imbalances resulted in centralized control of power and resources, excluding large sections of the population.

Nature of Inequality

• Inequality in Brazil is multidimensional, involving:

  • Income gaps

  • Unequal access to health, education, and employment

  • Racial and regional disparities

• Urban elites enjoy better public services, infrastructure, and job opportunities, while rural and poor populations face poverty, illiteracy, and lack of access.

Impact on Political Structure

• Economic inequality has led to a divided political culture:

  • Upper classes tend to support conservative and market-oriented policies to maintain their status.

  • Marginalized groups push for inclusive, redistributive policies addressing their needs.

• This class divide fuels political conflict and policy deadlock in government.

Government Responses and Limitations

• Policies like land reforms, education investment, and social welfare schemes have aimed to reduce inequality.

• However, these efforts face:

  • Poor implementation

  • Corruption

  • Institutional weaknesses

• Government resources often do not reach the poorest areas due to bureaucratic inefficiencies and elite resistance.

Role of Social Movements

• Movements such as:

  • Movimento dos Sem Terra (Landless Workers' Movement)

  • Movimento Negro (Black Rights Movement)

• These have advocated for:

  • Land redistribution

  • Equal rights

  • Social justice

• Despite raising awareness, these movements face challenges in influencing deep-rooted institutional structures.

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) and Its Effects

• Brazil followed an ISI strategy to promote local industry and reduce foreign dependence.

• While initially successful, it created:

  • Economic imbalances

  • Limited industrial expansion

  • Increased inequality

• Resulted in the economic crisis of the 1980s, worsening inequality.

Current Challenges and the Way Forward

• Persistent inequality remains a barrier to inclusive development.

• Key areas needing reform:

  • Policy transparency

  • Effective redistribution mechanisms

  • Institutional accountability

• Democratization of opportunity across racial, geographic, and economic lines is essential.

• Political and economic reforms must focus on inclusive growth, equal access to services, and greater citizen participation.

Brazil's Political System

Brazil operates under a federal presidential democratic republic, where power is divided between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Its multiparty system is one of the most complex in the world, with numerous parties representing diverse ideologies, social classes, and regional interests. Political competition, coalition-building, and negotiation are integral features of this system.

Historical Background of Brazil’s Party System

• During the colonial era, political power was concentrated in the hands of Portuguese rulers and their allies, leaving little room for public participation.

• After independence in 1822, Brazil saw the formation of early political factions—some promoting monarchy or elite rule, others advocating more liberal and democratic principles.

• The 1964 military coup suppressed democratic institutions, imposing a centralized and authoritarian regime.

• With democracy restored in 1985, Brazil transitioned into a vibrant multiparty democracy, allowing for ideological diversity and broader representation.

Major Political Parties in Brazil

1. Workers’ Party (PT)

• Ideology: Left-wing

• Founded: 1980s by trade unions and social activists

• Key Figures: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Dilma Rousseff

• Focus: Social justice, poverty reduction, labor rightsChallenges: Involved in high-profile corruption scandals (e.g., Operation Car Wash), which damaged public trust

2. Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB)

• Ideology: Centre-right, liberal economic policies

• Base: Urban middle class, business sectors

• Achievements: Introduced significant economic reforms in the 1990s under President Fernando Henrique Cardoso

• Challenges: Declined in popularity due to perceived failure to address inequality

3. Democrats (DEM) / Union Brazil (merged form)

• Ideology: Right-wing

• Support Base: Business class, conservative voters

• Focus: Free market economy, low taxation, reduced government role

• Role: Often part of coalition governments with other centre-right parties

4. Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB)

• Ideology: Centrist, with roots in socialism and social democracy

• Agenda: Pro-poor development, inclusive policies

• Tactics: Often aligns with different coalitions to maintain relevance

5. Republicans (PRB)

• Ideology: Right-wing, socially conservative

• Base: Religious communities, especially evangelical Christians

• Focus: Family values, traditional norms, religious freedom

Coalition Politics in Brazil

Nature of Coalition Governance

• Due to the large number of parties, no single party typically wins a majority.

• Coalition governments are formed to gain legislative support and ensure stability.

• These alliances require negotiation and compromise, often between ideologically diverse groups.

Impact on Governance

• Positive Aspects:

  • Reflects political pluralism and broader representation

  • Encourages power-sharing and negotiation

• Negative Aspects:

  • Coalitions are often fragile and short-lived

  • Can lead to policy paralysis and administrative delays

  • Parties frequently shift allegiances for political gain

Key Challenges in Brazil’s Party System

1. Political Instability

• Frequent shifts in alliances make it hard to maintain consistent governance.

• Long-term policymaking becomes difficult due to short-lived coalitions.

2. Corruption

• Widespread corruption scandals (e.g., Lava Jato) have involved leaders across the political spectrum.

• These issues have eroded public trust in institutions and politicians.

3. Ideological Fluidity

• Many parties frequently change their ideological stance to appeal to broader voter bases.

• This leads to voter confusion, reduced accountability, and weakened party identity.

Election System of Brazil 

Brazil operates under a democratic and federal republican system that emphasizes universal suffrage, political pluralism, and citizen participation. Governed by the 1988 Federal Constitution, its electoral framework is designed to represent the country’s vast social, ethnic, economic, and regional diversity.

Universal Suffrage and Voting Rights

• Brazil has one of the broadest voting bases in the world.

• Compulsory voting applies to:

  • Citizens aged 18 to 70 who are literate

• Optional voting applies to:

  • Citizens aged 16–17

  • Elderly citizens over 70

  • Illiterate citizens

Structure of Elections

1. Presidential Elections

• Held every four years, the President is elected through direct popular vote.

• If no candidate secures more than 50% in the first round, a runoff election is held between the top two candidates.

• The President serves as both head of state and head of government, and appoints ministers, but is limited to two consecutive terms.

Key features

• Strong mandate of legitimacy

• Emphasis on direct democracy

• Presidential debates and media visibility play a critical role in influencing outcomes

2. National Legislature

Brazil has a bicameral National Congress consisting of:

Federal Senate (Senado Federal)

• 81 members, with 3 Senators per state, regardless of population

• Senators serve 8-year terms

• Elections are staggered: 1/3 and 2/3 of Senate seats alternate every four years

Chamber of Deputies (Câmara dos Deputados)

• 513 members, elected based on state population

• Members serve 4-year terms

• Elected via open-list proportional representation—voters choose individual candidates, not just parties

Impact: This promotes multi-party representation, but also leads to fragmentation, requiring coalition governments.

3. State and Municipal Elections

• Governors are elected directly in each of the 26 states and the Federal District.

• State Legislative Assemblies and Municipal Councils use proportional representation.

• Mayors (Prefeitos) are elected through direct voting, with a runoff if no one gets a majority.

This decentralized structure reflects Brazil's federalist nature, where power is shared between national and subnational governments.

Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voting Technology

• Introduced in 1996, Brazil’s electronic voting system is globally recognized for its efficiency and transparency.

• Key features:

  • No paper ballots—results are automatically tallied

  • Faster result declaration—often within hours

  • Eliminates manual counting errors

  • Reduces risks of ballot stuffing and fraud

Despite its success, some critics and political figures have raised doubts about security, calling for auditable paper trails. Still, there has been no credible evidence of widespread electronic fraud.

Electoral Commission and Oversight

The Superior Electoral Court (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral - TSE) plays a central role in Brazil’s elections. It is an independent judicial body, not part of the executive branch.

Key Responsibilities:

• Supervising national and local elections

• Certifying candidates and parties

• Monitoring campaign finance

• Investigating fraud or violations

• Ensuring compliance with the Electoral Code

Electoral Campaign Regulation

To promote fair competition, Brazil has detailed laws regulating campaigns:

• Spending limits based on office and jurisdiction

• Limits on TV and radio time (allocated free to parties during campaign season)

• Restrictions on paid online advertising

• Strict rules on donations, especially from corporations (which are now banned)

• Mandatory financial disclosures

Challenges in the Brazilian Electoral System

Despite many reforms and innovations, the system faces ongoing issues:

1. Corruption and Campaign Finance Irregularities

• High-profile scandals (e.g., Operation Car Wash) have exposed deep corruption involving top politicians and businesses.

• Unlawful campaign funding and political patronage weaken public trust.

2. Political Fragmentation

• Over 30 political parties are represented in Congress.

• This leads to:

  • Coalition governments that can be unstable

  • Difficulty passing reforms

  • Party-switching ("party hopping") by politicians

3. Unequal Access to Media and Resources

• Wealthier candidates enjoy greater media exposure and professional campaigning tools.

• Smaller parties and grassroots candidates often lack these advantages.

4. Disinformation and Electoral Violence

• Use of social media to spread fake news and disinformation (notably in the 2018 elections)

• Intimidation and violence, especially in local politics, though federal elections remain relatively peaceful

Recent Reforms and Future Improvements

Brazil has taken several steps to address these challenges:

• Ban on corporate donations (2015)

• Stricter penalties for electoral crimes

• Promotion of fact-checking initiatives

• Debate over adding paper trails to EVMs for auditing

• New proposals for reducing the number of parties through electoral thresholds

These steps aim to increase efficiency, reduce political fragmentation, and strengthen democracy.

Federal System of Government 

Brazil’s 1988 Constitution formally established it as a federal republic, creating a system where sovereignty is shared between the central (federal) government and subnational units, including states and municipalities. This structure reflects the country’s vast size and diversity, allowing localized governance while preserving national unity.

Structure of the Federal System

1. Levels of Government

Brazil’s federation is composed of:

• Federal Government (based in Brasília, the Federal District)

• 26 States

• One Federal District

• 5,570+ Municipalities

Each level has its own executive, legislative, and judicial branches, defined and protected by the Constitution.

2. State Governments

• Each state has:

  • Its own constitution

  • A directly elected Governor

  • A unicameral state legislature

  • Independent state-level judiciary

• States are autonomous in managing internal affairs such as:

  • Public education

  • Health services

  • State-level law enforcement

  • Infrastructure projects

However, they must operate within the bounds of the federal constitution and cannot override national laws.

Division of Powers and Responsibilities

Federal Powers

The federal government handles areas of national interest, such as:

• Foreign policy

• Defense

• National economic policy

• Monetary system and currency

• Immigration and citizenship

State Powers

States have the right to:

• Legislate on matters of regional interest

• Levy and collect certain state-level taxes

• Oversee public security and civil police

• Administer state education and transportation

Municipal Powers

Municipalities, empowered by the Constitution, manage:

• Local urban planning

• Public sanitation

• Primary education and healthcare

• Public transport

• Collection of municipal taxes

Municipalities have mayors and local councils elected directly by the people, giving them a strong degree of grassroots democracy.

Fiscal Federalism and Revenue Sharing

• States and municipalities have independent revenue sources, including taxes such as:

  • ICMS (state tax on goods and services)

  • ISS (municipal service tax)

• However, there is a mandatory sharing of certain revenues:

  • A portion of federal taxes (like income and industrial product tax) is redistributed to subnational units through constitutional funds.

• While this is intended to promote equity, wealthier states and cities often still accumulate more revenue, leading to fiscal imbalances.

Cooperation and Coordination Mechanisms

The Brazilian federal system is characterized by intergovernmental cooperation, especially in areas like:

• National development plans

• Public health (e.g., unified health system – SUS)

• Education standards

• Environmental policies

The federal government often provides financial incentives or support to encourage alignment with national priorities, such as infrastructure projects or social programs (e.g., Bolsa Família).

Conclusion

• Brazil has adopted several constitutions since 1822, with the 1988 Constitution being the current one.

• The 1988 Constitution guarantees democratic rights and social inclusion.

• Brazil follows a federal system with power divided between the central government and 26 states.

• States have autonomy but must follow federal laws, especially in foreign policy, defense, and economic regulation.

• Economic inequality persists, with issues like land distribution, education, and healthcare inequalities.

• Ethnic diversity plays a significant role in political challenges, especially between white and black communities.

• Brazil’s party system is diverse, with left-wing and right-wing parties, like the Workers' Party (PT) and Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB).

• Elections are majority-based, with direct voting for the president, congress, and local officials.

• Tensions exist between the federal and state governments due to unequal resource distribution and political power imbalances.

• Richer states exert more influence, leading to political instability in less developed regions.

• Brazil faces challenges in achieving economic equality, addressing social movements, and overcoming political corruption.

• Brazil’s political system is dynamic, with a constant push for reforms to achieve socio-economic equality and inclusive governance.