Unit-1 Britain Notes | Comparative Political System DSC-17 | DU SEMESTER 6 NOTES

Introduction

• Britain, also known as the United Kingdom (UK), is a union of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

• It has a unique identity and a rich historical background.

• The UK follows a combination of constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy.

• The monarch is a symbolic head, while real power lies with Parliament and the Prime Minister.

• Britain has an unwritten constitution based on historical documents, customs, and traditions, making it flexible and adaptable.

• It was the center of the Industrial Revolution and has had a major impact on the world in science, technology, and culture.

• At its peak, the British Empire was so vast that it was said, "The sun never sets on it."

• Although the empire has declined, the UK remains influential in global politics, trade, and diplomacy.

• In recent decades, powers have been decentralized, giving Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland their own local governments.

• The UK is a multicultural society with people of various religions, languages, and cultures.

• Brexit marked Britain’s exit from the European Union, leading to changes in international relations and business strategies.

• Despite Brexit, the UK continues to uphold democracy, freedom, and the rule of law.

• Traditional institutions like the monarchy and the Church of England are still part of British culture.

• Britain is known for its balance between tradition and modernity, and for its political stability and adaptability.

Political Traditions and Constitutional Development of Britain

Formation of Britain

• Britain (UK) is a political union of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.

• This union gradually developed into a single nation with a common monarchy and political system.

Monarchy and Constitution

• The monarchy has existed in Britain from ancient times.

• Over time, absolute monarchy evolved into a constitutional monarchy where the monarch acts as a ceremonial head of state.

• This evolution was peaceful, with no major violent revolution—one of Britain's unique historical achievements.

• Britain has the oldest unwritten constitution in the world:

  • Not a single written document.

  • Composed of laws, court decisions, conventions, and historical documents.

  • It is flexible and has evolved over time according to the political needs of the country.

Major Events in British Constitutional Development

1. Magna Carta (1215)

• Signed by King John.

• First major legal document limiting monarch's power.

• Key provisions:

  • King must follow the law.

  • Cannot impose unjust taxes.

  • Cannot misuse royal powers.

• Introduced the idea that law is above the king.

• Laid the foundation for justice and civil rights.

2. Glorious Revolution (1688) and the Bill of Rights (1689)

• James II was overthrown; William III and Mary II took the throne.

• Confirmed that Parliament is supreme over the monarchy.

• The Bill of Rights:

  • Denied the divine right of kings.

  • Strengthened civil liberties.

  • Made monarchy subject to laws passed by Parliament.

• Known as a "bloodless revolution", it marked the real beginning of constitutional monarchy in Britain.

3. Reform Acts (19th Century)

• A series of acts that gradually expanded democratic representation

  • Reform Act 1832 (Great Reform Act)

    • Abolished "rotten boroughs" (unfair constituencies).

    • Gave industrial cities proper representation.

    • Extended voting rights to middle-class men based on property.

  • Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884

    • Extended voting rights to working-class men and rural areas.

    • Increased public involvement in governance.

• Strengthened the role of the House of Commons.

• Reduced power of the House of Lords.

• Led to the rise of parliamentary supremacy and representative democracy.

4. Representation of the People Acts (1918 & 1928)

• 1918 Act:

  • Gave voting rights to some women over 30 and all men over 21.

• 1928 Act:

  • Established universal adult suffrage, including all women over 21.

• These acts made British democracy more inclusive and egalitarian.

Key Features of the British Constitution

• Unwritten Constitution: Not in one document; developed through statutes, customs, court rulings, and conventions.

• Parliamentary Supremacy: Parliament holds ultimate authority; courts cannot overturn its laws.

• Unitary State: Power is centralized in Parliament, though Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have limited autonomy.

• Constitutional Monarchy: Monarch is symbolic; real power lies with elected officials.

• No Judicial Review: Courts cannot declare parliamentary laws invalid.

• Flexibility: Constitution can be changed through normal laws; no special amendment process.

• Bicameral Legislature: Parliament consists of:

  • The House of Commons – holds legislative power.

  • The House of Lords – has a more limited role.

• Common Law System: Based on judicial precedents and interpretations.

• Governance by Conventions: Many rules are followed as traditions, not written laws.

• Civil Rights: Protected by laws and parliamentary traditions.

• The Constitution is known for its stability and adaptability, shaped by historical needs and experiences.

Social and Economic Dimensions of British Politics

1. Political Structure of Britain

• Constitutional Monarchy: Britain operates under a constitutional monarchy, where the Monarch (King or Queen) is the symbolic head of state. The monarch’s powers are largely ceremonial, with real authority vested in the Parliament and the Prime Minister.

• Westminster Model of Government:

  • This model of government, followed by the UK, is a parliamentary democracy with a bicameral parliament.

  • The House of Commons (the lower house) is the main legislative body with elected members. They debate and pass laws and hold the government accountable.

  • The House of Lords (the upper house) is made up of appointed members, including life peers, bishops, and hereditary peers. Its role is largely advisory and reviewing—it can suggest changes to legislation but cannot block it indefinitely.

• Executive Power:

  • The Prime Minister and the Cabinet (the group of senior government ministers) hold executive powers, which means they manage the government and implement policies.

  • The Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons and is directly accountable to Parliament.

  • This system emphasizes accountability, transparency, and stability, ensuring that government actions are scrutinized by elected representatives.

• Rule of Law & Judicial Independence:

  • Rule of law is central to the British system, meaning that everyone is subject to the law, including those in power.

  • The independent judiciary ensures that the law is applied fairly and impartially, protecting individual rights and freedoms.

  • Civil rights are safeguarded through legislation and judicial decisions, though the rights are sometimes based on judicial interpretations rather than a single written document like a Bill of Rights.

• Sovereignty of Parliament:

  • The principle of parliamentary sovereignty means that Parliament has the supreme authority to make or change laws.

  • Courts cannot overturn or challenge laws passed by Parliament.

  • This makes the UK constitution flexible, as changes can be made through regular legislation without needing a special amendment process.

2. Economic System

• Mixed Economy:

  • Britain operates a mixed economy, combining both capitalist and socialist elements.

  • The state plays an important regulatory and welfare role, especially in areas such as health, education, and social services.

  • The capitalist element encourages free markets, private enterprise, and entrepreneurial activity, promoting wealth creation and innovation.

• Post-Industrial Economy:

  • The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century transformed Britain into a global economic power, but by the 20th century, Britain’s economy began to evolve as a result of several factors:

    • Decline of colonialism: Many former colonies gained independence, reducing Britain’s economic influence.

    • Effects of World War II: War devastation required significant rebuilding, which led to economic restructuring.

  • Today, Britain’s economy is driven by:

    • Financial services: London is one of the world’s major financial centers.

    • Manufacturing: Although it is less prominent than in the past, sectors like aerospace and automotive remain significant.

    • Innovation-based industries: Technology, biotechnology, and green industries are growing sectors.

      
      

• Nationalization and Privatization:

  • Mid-20th century: Britain nationalized major industries like coal, steel, and railways to bring them under state control.

  • 1980s: Margaret Thatcher’s government adopted policies of privatization and liberalization:

    • State-owned industries were sold off to the private sector.

    • The government reduced its direct involvement in economic activities.

    • This increased the role of private businesses and market forces in the economy.

      
      

• Challenges:

  • The modern British economy faces challenges like:

    • Unemployment, especially in traditional industries.

    • Income inequality, with significant differences between regions.

    • Globalization: While the economy has benefited from being open to trade, globalization also brings pressures like job outsourcing and increasing competition.

3. Welfare State and Public Services

• Welfare State:

  • Britain has a welfare state that provides citizens with support in areas such as health, education, and social security.

  • National Health Service (NHS):

    • Established after World War II, the NHS is one of the largest universal health services globally.

    • Funded by general taxation, it provides free healthcare to all UK citizens, which makes it a key example of Britain’s welfare model.

      
      

• Social Security:

  • The British welfare system offers social security to those who are unemployed, sick, or retired.

  • This includes benefits like unemployment insurance, disability allowances, and pensions for the elderly.

    
    

• Education:

  • State education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 18.

  • Higher education in universities is supported by both the government and private sector funding.

  • Social mobility: The welfare state and public education system aim to offer equal opportunities for social mobility, though access to higher education can still be influenced by socio-economic background.

4. Social System

• Class and Social Structure:

  • British society has traditionally been based on a class-based structure:

    • Royalty and aristocracy at the top.

    • The middle class and working class made up the rest of society.

      
      

  • Industrial Revolution:

    • The rise of industrialization in the 19th century helped weaken class boundaries, especially with the growth of the middle class.

    • While class distinctions still persist, the boundaries have become less rigid.

      
      

• Multicultural Society:

  • Britain is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious society due to historical factors like colonialism and immigration.

  • Major cities like London have become global melting pots, with communities from Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and Europe.

    
    

  • Challenges of Multiculturalism:

    • Racism, discrimination, and social inequality have been issues in British society.

    • Tensions exist between preserving British culture and integrating diverse cultures.

      
      

• Gender Equality and Social Progress:

  • Women’s Rights: Women gained the right to vote in 1918, and gender equality in the workplace was achieved over the 20th century.

  • However, challenges like the gender pay gap, underrepresentation in leadership positions, and social barriers for women persist.

  • Social Mobility: Although Britain has made progress in terms of social mobility, there remain significant inequalities between urban and rural areas. London and the South-East remain wealthier, while the North faces higher levels of unemployment and industrial decline.

    
    

• Economic Inequality:

  • Regional Disparities: There is a significant gap in economic prosperity between the South and the North of England. The North has faced industrial decline, while the South remains economically vibrant.

5. British Society: Tradition and Modernity

• Blending Tradition and Modernity:

  • British society represents a fusion of traditional institutions, like the monarchy and Church of England, with the modern forces of globalization, technology, and innovation.

  • Cultural continuity coexists with technological advancement, and the historical institutions of Britain continue to adapt in the modern globalized world.

    
    

• Globalization:

  • While Britain embraces global trade, innovation, and cultural exchange, it also faces the adverse effects of globalization—such as growing income inequality and the erosion of traditional industries.

Party System of Britain

1. Importance of Political Parties in Democracy

• Role in Democracy: Political parties are crucial for the functioning of democracy, as governance is carried out by elected representatives who are guided by public opinion. Political parties help form and influence this opinion, shaping governance.

• In Parliamentary Government: Britain follows a parliamentary system of governance, where the party with the majority in the general election forms the government. The party not in power plays the role of the opposition. Hence, a parliamentary government cannot function without political parties, making them essential to the political structure.

2. Origin and Development of Political Parties in Britain

• Stuart Period (17th Century): Political parties in Britain began during the reign of Charles II, where there was a conflict between the monarchy and Parliament. Public opinion was divided into two groups:

  • Cavaliers: Supporters of the King.

  • Roundheads: Supporters of Parliament.

    
    

• Whigs and Tories: During the reign of William III, these two groups evolved into Whigs and Tories:

  • Whigs: Advocated for limiting the monarch’s power.

  • Tories: Supported maintaining the supremacy of the King and the Church.

    
    

• Reform Acts of the 19th Century:

  • The Reform Act of 1832 led to a change in the names of these parties:

    • Tories became the Conservative Party.

    • Whigs became the Liberal Party.

      
      

• Labour Party Formation (20th Century):

  • In 1906, the Labour Party was founded, influenced by the trade union movement. It sought to represent the working class.

  • The Labour Party gained significant political traction, forming its first government in 1924, eventually replacing the Liberal Party as the second major party alongside the Conservatives.

3. Features of the British Party System

• Biparty System:

  • Britain traditionally operates under a biparty system. The two dominant political parties, Conservative Party and Labour Party, have alternated in power, though smaller parties do exist.

• Strict Party Discipline:

  • Party discipline is highly maintained. Political parties in Britain are well-organized, with members following a clear hierarchy and rules, ensuring governmental stability.

• Importance of Leadership:

  • Leadership in Britain’s political parties is critical. The personality and policies of the party leader have a significant influence on the direction of the party and its political agenda.

• Centralization:

  • Due to Britain’s small geographical size and uniformity of population, political parties in Britain tend to have a centralized structure, with strong control by the party leader over the entire party apparatus.

4. Main Political Parties in Britain

Conservative Party

• Origin:

  • The Conservative Party originated as the Tory Party, historically supporting the monarchy and the Church.

  • It adopted the name Conservative after the Reform Act of 1832.

• Core Ideology:

  • The Conservative Party is built on tradition, gradual changes, and capitalist principles.

  • It aims to preserve traditional structures and support economic conservatism, favoring free markets and limited government intervention.

• Policies:

  • Support for Capitalism: The Conservative Party favors capitalism and imperialism, upholding private property rights and opposing excessive government intervention in the economy.

  • Protection of the British Empire: The party historically advocated for the expansion and maintenance of the British Empire.

  • Public Welfare Schemes: While the Conservatives support the welfare state, they argue for limited expansion of government intervention in social matters.

• Organization:

  • The Conservative Party’s structure includes a National Union, a parliamentary party, local constituency associations, and various advisory committees.

  • The leader of the party is selected through an election by the party members and executive committee, with the party leader holding significant power over policy.

Labour Party

• Origin:

  • The Labour Party emerged from the trade union movement in the late 19th century. Initially called the Labour Representative Committee, it became the Labour Party in 1906.

  • It has since grown to represent the interests of the working class and the socialist agenda.

• Core Ideology:

  • The Labour Party is committed to socialism and democracy, aiming to create a society with economic equality and social justice.

  • It supports public ownership of essential industries and services.

• Policies:

  • Social Change: Labour seeks to create a society where workers receive fair compensation and control over their labor.

  • Democratic Socialism: It aims to replace capitalism with a system where property and means of production are owned by the public, ensuring benefits are shared equally.

  • Nationalization: The Labour Party supports nationalizing major industries, such as utilities, transportation, and communications.

  • Social Equality: The party advocates for equal opportunities in education, health, and economic rights for all citizens.

• Modern Adaptation:

  • While traditionally focused on socialism, the Labour Party has adapted to globalization and economic liberalization, supporting reforms that balance welfare with global economic realities.

• Organization:

  • The Labour Party is federally organized, with trade unions, the Fabian Society, and other socialist organizations as its key members.

  • It is governed by the Labour Party Conference, which sets policy direction, and the National Executive Committee, responsible for party administration.

5. Other Political Parties

In addition to the Conservative and Labour parties, several smaller political parties play significant roles in the British political landscape:

• Liberal Democrats: The Liberal Democrats advocate for civil liberties, individual rights, and electoral reform. They aim to create a fairer society through progressive policies.

• Scottish National Party (SNP): The SNP campaigns for Scottish independence and greater devolution of powers to Scotland.

• Green Party: The Green Party focuses on environmental issues, sustainability, and social justice. It advocates for policies to address climate change and promote eco-friendly technologies.

• UK Independence Party (UKIP): UKIP, once known for its anti-European Union stance, has shifted towards promoting national sovereignty, focusing on issues like immigration and national security.

British Election System

The British electoral system is one of the oldest and most stable democratic systems in the world. It is commonly known as the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system, a simple, direct, and quick method of electing representatives to the House of Commons.

1. Structure of the British Parliament

• House of Commons: This is the lower house, consisting of 650 Members of Parliament (MPs), each elected from a constituency. Members of the House of Commons are directly elected by the public during general elections.

• House of Lords: The upper house consists of appointed members. Unlike the House of Commons, members of the House of Lords are not elected; they are nominated or inherited positions.

2. The First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) Electoral System

The British electoral system is simple and straightforward. Under the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system, only one representative is elected from each constituency. Here's how it works:

• Constituencies: Britain is divided into 650 constituencies. Each constituency elects one MP to represent them in Parliament.

• Voting Process: On election day, voters visit polling stations to cast their vote for their preferred candidate.

• Counting and Results: Votes are counted, and the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins. Importantly, a simple majority (the highest number of votes) is sufficient, even if they do not receive more than half the total votes.

3. Electoral Administration and Eligibility

• Electoral Commission: Elections are monitored by the Electoral Commission, an independent body ensuring fairness and transparency throughout the election process.

• Voter Eligibility: To vote in British elections, a person must:

  • Be a British citizen or a citizen of a Commonwealth country.

  • Be 18 years or older.

  • Be registered in the electoral roll, as registration is compulsory.

4. Selection of the Prime Minister

• The Prime Minister is not directly elected by the public. Instead, the leader of the party that has won the most seats in the House of Commons is invited by the monarch to form the government. This reflects Britain’s parliamentary democracy.

• In cases where no party wins an absolute majority of seats, a coalition or minority government may be formed. This ensures that the government remains accountable to Parliament.

5. Election Cycles and Additional Elections

• General Elections: Elections for the House of Commons are held every five years. However, elections can be called earlier if Parliament agrees to dissolve or if a political crisis occurs, like the collapse of a government.

• Local and Regional Elections: Apart from the general elections, there are regular elections for:

  • Local councils,

  • Devolved parliaments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland,

  • European Parliament elections (until Brexit).

6. Advantages of the British Electoral System

The First-Past-the-Post system provides several advantages:

• Simplicity: The system is easy to understand, and the process of counting votes is quick and efficient.

• Stability: The system tends to produce a strong and stable government, as the party that wins the most seats usually forms the government. This reduces the likelihood of coalitions, which can lead to political instability.

• Clear Outcomes: The results are usually straightforward, and the winner is clear, minimizing ambiguity about the government’s composition.

7. Criticism of the British Electoral System

Despite its advantages, the British electoral system has faced criticism for several reasons:

• Disproportionate Results: The FPTP system can result in disproportionate representation. For example:

  • A party may receive a large number of votes across the country but fail to win many seats.

  • Another party may win more seats despite receiving fewer votes, leading to a mismatch between votes and seats.

• Minority Party Disadvantages: Smaller parties or independent candidates find it hard to succeed under the FPTP system. This disadvantages smaller voices, often leading to a two-party dominance (Conservatives and Labour) in British politics.

• Lack of Social Representation: The FPTP system has also been criticized for not providing adequate representation to minority communities or diverse ideologies, which may struggle to win in single-member constituencies.

8. Transparency and Fairness

To ensure fairness in the electoral process, the following mechanisms are in place:

• Secret Ballot: Voters cast their ballots in a secretive manner, ensuring that their vote is confidential.

• Independent Oversight: The Electoral Commission ensures fairness by overseeing all aspects of the election process.

• Spending Limits: Candidates and political parties must adhere to strict spending limits on campaigns to prevent economic inequality from affecting the election.

• Media Oversight: The media is also regulated, ensuring that coverage remains fair and does not unfairly benefit one candidate or party over others.

9. Future Considerations and Reforms

With technological advancements, the British electoral system is considering new innovations, such as:

• E-voting and online registration to increase convenience and participation.

• Special efforts are being made to encourage youth participation and increase engagement from minority communities, which have historically been underrepresented in the voting process.

• Electoral reforms may also be considered to address the disproportionate representation and improve social inclusion in the political system.

10. Contribution to Democracy

The British electoral system plays a crucial role in the functioning of its democracy. It:

• Provides the public with the opportunity to choose their representatives.

• Ensures that the government remains accountable to the people through regular elections.

• Despite criticisms, it has contributed significantly to the stability of Britain’s constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy.

However, as with any system, it demands continuous review and reform to ensure that it meets the evolving needs of all segments of society and provides equal representation for all ideologies.

Unitary System of Government

The British system of government is primarily unitary but includes some elements of federalism, making it unique. It combines a centralized government with decentralized powers for regions like Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

1. The Unitary System

In the UK, all power is concentrated in Parliament, a principle called Parliamentary Sovereignty. This means Parliament can make, change, or repeal laws without challenge from any other body, including the judiciary. The UK does not have a written constitution; its governance is shaped by laws, traditions, and court decisions.

• Centralized Power: Unlike federal systems, there’s no division of power between central and regional governments. All authority ultimately lies with Parliament.

2. Decentralization within the Unitary System

While the UK is unitary, it has devolved powers to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, granting them autonomy over certain domestic matters like education and health. However, major issues like defence, foreign policy, and revenue remain with the central government. This decentralization is called constitutional decentralization, as the central government retains control.

• Example: Scotland’s independence referendum in 2014 could only take place with the permission of Parliament.

3. Local Government

Local councils exist in England but have limited power, as they only act within the framework set by the central government. Unlike in a federal system, local bodies in the UK do not have independent authority.

4. Role of the Monarch

The Monarch is a ceremonial figure, with real power resting in Parliament. The Prime Minister, as head of the majority party in the House of Commons, runs the government, while the Monarch’s role is largely symbolic.

5. Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:

• Quick Decision-Making: The unitary system allows swift lawmaking.

• Uniformity: The system ensures national consistency in laws.

• Unity: It helps maintain national cohesion.

Limitations:

• Regional Tensions: The central government’s control over major issues can conflict with regional demands for autonomy.

• Limited Local Power: Local governments are heavily dependent on the central government.

6. A Unique Blend

The UK’s government combines unitary authority with decentralized powers for certain regions, making it flexible and adaptable. While it provides stability, there are ongoing challenges around balancing unity with regional autonomy.

Conclusion

• Political System: Britain has a parliamentary system with an unwritten constitution shaped by historical events like the Magna Carta (1215) and the Glorious Revolution (1688).

• Key Principles: Based on rights, representation, and accountability in governance.

• Monarchy and Parliament: It has a constitutional monarchy, where the Parliament has the most power (parliamentary sovereignty).

• Unitary System: The UK operates under a unitary system, but decentralization gives Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland some autonomy.

• Social and Economic Model: A mixed economy balancing social welfare (e.g., NHS) and capitalism (e.g., privatization, financial services).

• Party System: Dominated by the Conservative and Labour parties, with Liberal Democrats and regional parties also important.

• Electoral System: Uses the First-Past-the-Post system, leading to stable governments but limiting representation for smaller parties.

• Britain is a constitutional monarchy with a unique combination of unitary government and decentralization, ensuring stable democracy.