Unit-4 Russia Notes | Comparative Political System DSC-17 | DU SEMESTER 6 NOTES
- Krati Sahu
- 3 days ago
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Updated: 2 days ago
Introduction
Russia is the world’s largest country, covering about 17.1 million square kilometers.
It spans across Eastern Europe to Northern Asia, with 11 time zones.
It borders 14 countries and has access to the Arctic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.
The capital of Russia is Moscow, which is the political, economic, and cultural hub of the country.
Russia has experienced phases of monarchy, communism, and democratic transition.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia became an independent federal republic.
Russia follows a presidential system, where President Vladimir Putin holds significant power.
The Federal Assembly consists of two houses: State Duma (lower house) and Federation Council (upper house).
Russia faces tensions with Western countries, particularly after the annexation of Crimea in 2014.
Military action in Ukraine (2022) led to international criticism and economic sanctions.
Russia has a diverse population with over 190 ethnic groups and several languages.
Russian Orthodox Christianity is the predominant religion, but Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism are also practiced.
Russia’s Political Traditions and Constitutional Development
Context and Background
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia needed a new constitution to define its political, social, and economic structures.
The 1977 Soviet Constitution was outdated, reflecting communist ideals, and lacked provisions for democracy and market economy.
Boris Yeltsin ordered the drafting of a new constitution in 1993 amidst political instability, which included a power struggle between the president and parliament.
Adoption of the Constitution
On 12 December 1993, the Russian people voted in favor of the new constitution, which came into effect on 25 December 1993.
The constitution declared Russia a federal, democratic, and multi-party republic.
Structure of Government
Separation of Powers: The constitution established a clear division of powers into three branches:
Executive: Led by the president, who is the head of state, with significant powers.
Legislature: Bicameral Federal Assembly, consisting of the State Duma (lower house) and Federation Council (upper house).
Judiciary: Includes the Supreme Court and Constitutional Court, with judicial review of laws.
Major Features of the Constitution
Written and Rigid Constitution: The constitution is difficult to amend, providing a stable legal framework.
Federal Structure: Russia is a federal state with 85 federal units, including republics, regions, and cities.
Presidential System: The president holds extensive executive powers, including the appointment of the prime minister.
Constitutional Supremacy: The constitution is the highest legal authority, and no laws or actions can contradict it.Guarantee of Human Rights: Fundamental rights include freedom of expression, religion, equality, and access to social services like healthcare and education.
Secular State: There is a clear separation between state and religion, with no state religion.
Multiparty Democracy: Political parties operate freely, and elections are held democratically.
Local Self-Government: Local governance is recognized and allowed to function independently.
Social Welfare Provisions: Guarantees welfare services, including pensions, free healthcare, and education.
Judicial Review and Independence: The Constitutional Court and Supreme Court ensure judicial review and the protection of constitutional principles.
Respect for International Law: In cases of conflict between national laws and international treaties, international treaties take precedence.
Constitutional Amendment Procedure: A special and more stringent procedure is required for amending key articles, especially those relating to federal structure and human rights.
Challenges in Implementation
Despite its formal introduction, the balance of power remains contested, with the presidency holding excessive power.
The multi-party system remains weak due to institutional challenges and political disputes.
Russian Society and Economy
Post-Soviet Transition
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia shifted towards capitalism, privatization, and economic reforms.
This transition was unbalanced, leading to a sharp economic decline in the 1990s.
Privatization resulted in the concentration of wealth among a few individuals, known as oligarchs, contributing to economic inequality and class divisions.
Economic Structure
Russia’s economy is heavily dependent on the export of natural resources, particularly oil and gas, which are the country's economic backbone.
The reliance on energy resources makes the economy vulnerable to global energy price fluctuations.
Western sanctions and the Ukraine conflict have pressured the economy, leading to decreased foreign investment and higher inflation.
Despite these challenges, the Russian government is seeking to become more self-reliant and is exploring alternative markets.
Political System
Under President Vladimir Putin, Russia has adopted a system of "managed democracy", where power is centralized and political control is paramount.
While this model provides political stability, critics argue that it weakens democratic institutions and human rights.
Society and Cultural Identity
Russian society is culturally diverse, with a strong sense of national pride rooted in traditional values, Orthodox Christianity, and cultural heritage.
Urbanization and globalization have led to more Westernized lifestyles in large cities, with progressive ideologies becoming more common.
In contrast, rural areas continue to maintain more traditional lifestyles.
The government has used historical events and cultural symbols to promote nationalism and strengthen social cohesion, especially during difficult times.
Challenges and Future Outlook
Economic diversity, social equality, and democratic reforms remain major challenges for Russia’s future.
The concentration of power and reliance on natural resources continue to limit the country’s development beyond its traditional industries.
Party System
Controlled Multipartyism
Russia has a multiparty system, but it operates under controlled conditions, with the United Russia party dominating the political landscape.
Dominance of United Russia
United Russia, led by President Vladimir Putin, is the ruling party and plays a permanent dominant role in Russian politics. It has significant support from the government and administrative system.
Control over Opposition
Opposition parties face political and administrative pressure, and their influence is limited due to control over the media, the election commission, and the judiciary.
Independent candidates and progressive opposition are often suppressed or banned.
Weak Opposition
Major opposition parties like the Communist Party (KPRF), Liberal Democratic Party (LDPR), and Just Russia are active but have limited independence and influence.
Barriers to Party Registration and Elections
Registration of new political parties and participation in elections is challenging. Candidates face strict vetting and rules.
Presidential Influence
The president’s role is extremely influential, making it almost impossible for a party to succeed without the president’s support.
Media Control
State-controlled media dominate, and are widely used for political propaganda. Independent media have limited space to operate.
Regional Influence
United Russia dominates regional and local levels, and the opposition faces greater challenges at these levels.
Major Political Parties of Russia
United Russia
Established in 2001, it is the ruling party under President Vladimir Putin.
Ideology: Nationalism, conservative values, and political stability.
Maintains dominance through control over media and the administrative system.
Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF)
Founded in 1993, it is the main opposition party.
Ideology: Marxism-Leninism, socialist policies (income equality, nationalization).
Supporters are mainly elderly citizens and those from rural areas.
Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR)
Established in 1991, led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky for many years.
Ideology: Right-wing nationalism and traditional Russian values.
Known as the “Kremlin’s controlled opposition”, due to similarities with United Russia policies.
A Just Russia
Founded in 2006, this party advocates for socialist democracy and social justice.
Positioned as an alternative to both the ruling United Russia and the Communist Party, though it occasionally supports government policies.
Electoral System
Russia's electoral system is outlined in the Constitution of 1993, which establishes the country as a federal republic with a multiparty system. However, while the system formally appears democratic, it has faced significant criticisms regarding centralization of power, limited opposition freedoms, and a controlled electoral process. Below is a breakdown of the system:
Structure of the Election System of Russia
The election process in Russia can be divided into three main levels:
Presidential Elections
Parliamentary Elections
Regional and Local Elections
1. Presidential Elections
Process:
The president is elected every six years.
Candidates must be at least 35 years old and have lived in Russia for the last 10 years to run.
A candidate must secure at least 50% of the votes to win. If no candidate gets 50%, a second round (runoff) is held.
Challenges and Criticisms
Free and fair elections are often questioned.
Opposition candidates face obstacles and are sometimes excluded from elections.
The state-controlled media and administrative machinery are often used to favor the ruling party and incumbent president.
2. Parliamentary Elections
Russia has a bicameral parliament, which consists of two houses:
State Duma (Lower House)
450 members are elected through a mixed electoral system.
225 seats are allocated through the party list system (proportional representation).
225 seats are allocated through single-member constituencies (first-past-the-post).
Electoral Barriers
A party must secure at least 5% of the vote to enter the State Duma.
Smaller parties and independent candidates face significant hurdles to participation.
Federation Council (Upper House)
Composed of two members from each federal region.
These members are nominated by regional legislatures and executive authorities, not directly elected.
3. Regional and Local Elections
These elections include:
Regional governors,
City councils, and
Local bodies.
Election Process:
Elections at the local level are held directly by voters.
United Russia, the ruling party, holds significant influence even at regional and local levels.
Key Features of Russia’s Electoral Processes
Multi-Party System
United Russia dominates the political landscape.
Opposition parties face restrictions and limited freedom to operate.
Control of the Election Commission
The Central Election Commission (CEC) manages the election process.
The CEC has been criticized for favoring the government and the ruling party.
Propaganda and Media Control
The ruling party uses state-controlled media for political propaganda.
Independent media and opposition candidates do not receive equal media coverage.
Electoral Hurdles
There are hurdles in candidate registration and campaigning.
Electoral fraud and rigging allegations are frequently raised.
Voting Process and Technology
Voting occurs manually and electronically.
The use of modern technology has raised concerns about transparency and fairness.
Challenges of the Election System
Lack of Freedom and Fairness
Opposition parties find it difficult to actively participate in elections.
The electoral process often lacks fairness and freedom.
Political Pressure
Opposition candidates are pressured, disqualified, or arrested during election periods.
Prominent opposition figures face legal challenges and arrests.
Rigging and Irregularities
Allegations of electoral fraud, including manipulated results and voter coercion, are common.
International organizations have criticized the lack of transparency in the process.
Although Russia’s electoral system appears to be democratic on paper, in reality, it reflects a centralization of power under President Vladimir Putin and his party, United Russia. The system is dominated by the ruling party, and opposition parties are often suppressed through electoral barriers, media control, and political pressure.
Federal System
Russia’s federal system, as outlined in the 1993 Constitution, presents a formal structure of decentralization intended to reflect the country’s vast geographical size and ethnic diversity. However, in actual practice, it is heavily centralized and influenced by authoritarian governance, particularly under the long-term leadership of President Vladimir Putin.
Structure of the Russian Federation
Russia is composed of 89 federal subjects, categorized as:
21 Republics – e.g., Tatarstan, Chechnya (ethnically defined, with their own constitutions and official languages).
9 Krais – territorial regions.
46 Oblasts – standard administrative regions.
3 Federal Cities – Moscow, St. Petersburg, Sevastopol.
1 Autonomous Oblast – Jewish Autonomous Oblast.
4 Autonomous Okrugs – often ethnically based, with limited self-governance.
Though these units are theoretically equal in federal law, they have unequal autonomy and influence in practice.
Principles of the Federal System
Multiethnicity and Multilingualism are constitutionally protected.
Republics may adopt their own constitutions, languages, and cultural policies.
Federal subjects are represented in national governance through the Federation Council.
Reality of Centralized Power
Under President Putin, the “vertical of power” model has become dominant:
Governors, once elected directly by citizens, were turned into presidential appointees in the early 2000s. Though elections have been reintroduced, candidates are typically vetted and must be approved by the Kremlin.
Budgetary and administrative control from the center has limited regional autonomy.
Federal laws and courts often favor the central government’s interpretation, diminishing regional authority.
Inequality Among Federal Subjects
Stronger regions like Tatarstan and Chechnya have negotiated special arrangements with Moscow, granting them greater autonomy.
Weaker, remote, or poorer regions rely more heavily on federal subsidies and wield less political influence.
This leads to a fragmented federal landscape, where asymmetry undermines the idea of equal federalism.
Cultural and Social Diversity Challenges
Regions like Dagestan, Bashkortostan, and Tatarstan are ethnically diverse and often push back against federal homogenization efforts.
The Chechen conflict is a major example of regional resistance to federal control, illustrating long-standing tensions between ethnic identity and national unity.
Cultural policies from the center are often viewed as attempts to impose uniformity, raising friction with local identities.
Judicial and Legal Framework
While the Constitution provides for a separation of powers, judicial independence is limited.
The Constitutional Court often aligns with executive interests, weakening the federal subjects’ ability to challenge central authority.
Conclusion
Russia’s 1993 Constitution established it as a federal semi-presidential republic after the Soviet Union's collapse.
The President is the most powerful figure, leading in foreign policy, national security, and emergencies.
Power is divided among the executive, legislature (State Duma & Federation Council), and judiciary.
Since 2000, President Vladimir Putin’s leadership has led to greater centralization of power.
The United Russia party dominates the political system.
Though the Constitution supports democracy and federalism, in practice there are restrictions on opposition and media.
Russia’s current system is highly centralized, with the President and government shaping both domestic and foreign policy.
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