Unit-3 India in South Asia: Issues and Challenges | India’s Foreign Policy DSC-18 SEM 6 | BA Hons Political Science

A. Issues: Land and Boundary, Migration, and Refugee Crisis

South Asia: Complexity and Challenges

• South Asia is one of the most geopolitically complex regions because of its huge diversity in culture, politics, ethnicity, and religion.

• Major challenges include:

  • Unresolved land and boundary disputes

  • Large-scale migration

  • Recurring refugee crises

• These issues mainly come from:

  • Colonial history (especially British India’s partition in 1947)

  • Socio-economic inequalities

  • Political tensions between countries

• These problems block better relations between South Asian countries and make regional cooperation difficult.

 Land and Boundary Disputes: Historical Context

• Most South Asian boundary disputes started from colonial-era border drawing during British rule.

• Borders were poorly demarcated (not mapped properly), and ethnic diversity made things more complicated.

• Result: Many disputes remain unresolved, leading to regular tensions even today.

• These disputes are linked to present-day security, economic growth, and politics.

India-Pakistan Disputes

1. Kashmir Conflict:

   • Root cause: In 1947, after India’s partition, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir chose to join India.

   • Pakistan opposed this decision, leading to wars (1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999) and continuous tensions.

   • Kashmir is deeply sensitive because it involves religious, political, and strategic interests.

     
     

2. Sir Creek Dispute:

   • A 96-kilometre marshy strip in the Rann of Kutch area.

   • Dispute is about where exactly the boundary lies — Pakistan claims the middle of the creek, India claims the eastern bank.

   • Important because it affects maritime boundaries and rights over fishing and oil/gas resources.

India-China Disputes

1. Arunachal Pradesh:

   • India claims it as a full-fledged Indian state.

   • China calls it "South Tibet" and rejects India’s claim, referring to the 1914 Simla Convention as invalid.

   • Tensions flare often, especially during official visits and development activities by India in Arunachal Pradesh.

     
     

2. Eastern Ladakh (Line of Actual Control - LAC):

   • No agreed official border (just a vague Line of Actual Control).

   • Frequent Chinese incursions into Indian territory.

   • Galwan Valley clash (2020): Worst violence between Indian and Chinese troops in decades, causing deaths on both sides.

   • Result: Heavy militarization along the LAC, with both countries rapidly building infrastructure and military posts.

India-Bangladesh: Resolution of Enclaves (2015 Land Boundary Agreement)

• After the 1947 partition, small areas called enclaves (one country’s land inside another country) created serious problems.

• Residents became stateless, facing poverty and no proper administration.

• In 2015, India and Bangladesh signed the Land Boundary Agreement:

  • 162 enclaves were exchanged.

  • Borders were regularized.

  • People were granted citizenship.

• This agreement is seen as a successful, peaceful model of conflict resolution in South Asia.

India-Nepal: Kalapani and Lipulekh Issues

• Disputes over Kalapani and Lipulekh Pass stem from the 1815 Sugauli Treaty signed between Nepal and British India.

• Kalapani:

  • India claims it as part of Uttarakhand.

  • Nepal claims it as part of Darchula district.

• Lipulekh Pass:

  • Important for trade and military access.

  • Nepal objected to India’s construction activities in the area.

• Disputes strain India-Nepal relations and trigger nationalist sentiments in both countries.

Impact of Boundary Disputes in South Asia

• Boundary disputes create mistrust and hostility among countries.

• They militarize borders, causing countries to spend more on defence and less on development.

  Unresolved disputes:

  • Increase security threats like terrorism (especially from Pakistan) and strategic threats (like from China).

  • Damage India's regional leadership image, especially among smaller neighbours like Nepal.

• Regional groups like SAARC suffer because of interstate rivalries.

• Intra-regional trade is very low because of lack of trust and cooperation.

Positive Example

• India and Bangladesh's 2015 agreement showed that peaceful negotiation is possible.

• However, many disputes still persist and block South Asia's full economic and political potential.

Migration Issues

• Migration is deeply rooted in South Asia's social and political life.

  Main causes:

  • Economic inequalities (people move to find jobs).

  • Environmental problems (like floods and disasters).

  • Political conflicts (like wars and persecution).

• Types of migration:

  • Labor migration (people seeking work).

  • Cross-border migration (people moving between countries).

  • Forced displacement (refugees escaping danger).

Migration Issues in South Asia

1. Patterns of Migration in South Asia

Migration across South Asia has taken multiple forms, influenced by economic needs, historical ties, and political circumstances.

Labour Migration

• South Asia witnesses some of the world’s largest labour migration flows.

• Millions of workers from Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan migrate annually to Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (like Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar) for jobs in construction, domestic work, and other labour-intensive sectors.

• Remittances from these workers form a vital economic backbone for home countries:

  • Example: In 2022, Bangladesh received over $20 billion in remittances, boosting its economy and helping rural families.

• Intra-regional Labour Migration is also significant:

  • Nepalese workers migrate to India under an open border agreement and are employed in hospitality, security, agriculture.

  • Bangladeshi workers migrate to India and are largely absorbed into informal sectors across West Bengal, Assam, Delhi.

• Historical and Porous Borders have further encouraged cross-border labour movement.

Important Cross-border Migrations

• India-Bangladesh Border:

  • Continuous movement driven by shared language, culture, and family ties.

  • Push factors include economic hardship and environmental disasters in Bangladesh.

• India-Nepal Border:

  • Open and free movement under the 1950 Treaty.

  • Nepalese migrate mainly for employment in urban areas.

• India-Sri Lanka Migration:

  • Tamil ethnic ties led to the movement of Sri Lankan Tamils to Tamil Nadu, especially during the Sri Lankan Civil War.

Forced Migration

• Conflicts, persecution, and environmental disasters cause large-scale forced displacement:

  • Rohingya Crisis: Nearly 1 million refugees from Myanmar fled to Bangladesh and beyond.

  • Partition of 1947: The largest mass migration event in history, changing the demographics and politics of the subcontinent permanently.

2. Factors Influencing Migration

Migration in South Asia is shaped by a mix of economic, environmental, and developmental factors:

Economic Disparities

• Push Factors:

  • Poverty, unemployment, poor healthcare, and limited education in rural areas drive people toward cities and neighboring countries.

• Pull Factors:

  • Economic growth and urbanization in countries like India offer better job prospects and higher wages, attracting migrants from weaker economies.

Environmental Challenges

• South Asia is highly vulnerable to climate change and natural disasters:

  • Climate-Induced Migration:

    • Rising sea levels threaten coastal Bangladesh, forcing people to move inland.

    • Annual floods and droughts displace millions.

  • Natural Disasters:

    • 2015 Nepal earthquake led to a huge migration of displaced people into India and other nations.

Development Projects

• Large infrastructure projects displace local populations:

  • Dams and Urbanization:

    • Millions displaced in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan by mega projects like dams and new urban zones.

  • Agricultural Land Acquisition:

    • Expansion of industries and cities onto farmland pushes rural communities to migrate.

3. India as a Destination Country

India’s geographical position, economic dynamism, and historical connections have made it a major destination for migrants within South Asia:

Migration from Bangladesh

• Bangladeshi migrants form the largest group of foreign-born workers in India.

• They typically work in agriculture, construction, domestic services, especially in West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura.

• However, migration also fuels political debates over illegal immigration and socio-economic tensions.

Migration from Nepal

• The 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship ensures free movement.

• Nepalese workers are present in hospitality, security, and retail sectors across Indian cities like Delhi and Mumbai.

Refugees from Sri Lanka

• Thousands of Sri Lankan Tamils took refuge in Tamil Nadu during the Sri Lankan Civil War.

• Many have been rehabilitated into Indian society, while others returned to Sri Lanka after the conflict ended.

4. India as a Transit Country

Besides being a destination, India serves as a major transit hub for migrants headed elsewhere:

Gulf-bound Workers

• India’s air and sea connectivity makes it a transit point for workers from South Asia heading to the Middle East.

Refugees in Transit

• India also hosts transiting refugees seeking asylum in the West or relocating to Southeast Asia:

  • Example: Rohingya refugees arriving via Bangladesh before attempting to move further.

  
  

Challenges of Transit Migration

• Border management, humanitarian concerns, and diplomatic tensions make transit migration management complex.

• As a regional power, India must balance domestic security with humanitarian obligations.

Refugee Crisis in South Asia

Refugee Flows in South Asia

South Asia has long been a major site of refugee flows, driven by ethnic conflicts, political instability, environmental disasters, and socio-economic hardship.

• The region’s porous borders and cultural connections make cross-border movements easier and more frequent.

• Refugees mainly come from Myanmar, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka, seeking shelter in neighbouring countries like India, Bangladesh, and Nepal.

• Challenge: Despite hosting substantial refugee populations, South Asian countries are not signatories to the 1951 Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol.

• As a result, refugee management often happens through ad hoc, domestic responses shaped by political concerns.

Key Refugee Crises in South Asia

Myanmar Rohingya Refugees

• The Rohingya, a Muslim minority from Myanmar’s Rakhine State, have faced systemic discrimination for decades.

• 2017 military crackdown: Forced over 700,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh.

• Now, over 1 million Rohingya live in Cox’s Bazar refugee camps — among the largest and most densely populated refugee camps globally.

• Challenges:

  • Severe overcrowding, poor healthcare, lack of education.

  • Strain on Bangladesh’s resources, raising security and environmental concerns.

• In India:

  • India has received some Rohingya asylum seekers.

  • The response has been mixed — some humanitarian relief, but also deportations and tightened border security citing national security risks.

Sri Lankan Civil War Refugees

• The Sri Lankan Civil War (1983–2009) between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) caused large-scale displacement.

• Nearly 100,000 Sri Lankan Tamil refugees fled to Tamil Nadu, India.

• Tamil Nadu provided housing, education, and basic necessities, leveraging cultural and linguistic ties.

• However:

  • Integration was uneven.

  • Return to Sri Lanka was delayed by continued political instability and safety concerns.

  • Many remain displaced, seeking durable solutions like local integration or resettlement.

India’s Policy on Refugees

Hosting Refugees

India has historically hosted refugees from multiple countries:

• Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Afghans, Sri Lankans, among others.

Lack of Legal Framework

• India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention or the 1967 Protocol.

• Refugees are managed under the Foreigners Act, 1946, which does not distinguish between refugees and illegal immigrants.

• As a result, refugee policy is inconsistent, discretionary, and varies by refugee group and by state.

National Security vs Humanitarianism

• Security Concerns:

  • Refugee populations, especially Rohingyas, have raised fears about terrorism and organized crime.

  • This has led to deportations and stricter border controls.

• Humanitarian Assistance:

  • Tibetan refugees have been given land and education rights.

  • Sri Lankan Tamil refugees have received state support in Tamil Nadu.

  • However, assistance often depends on strategic and political calculations.

Role of International Organisations

• The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) operates in India, providing assistance to non-neighboring country refugees (e.g., from Afghanistan, Somalia, Myanmar).

• However, India maintains a sovereign approach, limiting international intervention.

Challenges in Managing Large-Scale Refugee Migrations

Resource Constraints

• Housing, healthcare, and education systems are strained by refugee influxes.

• Competition over limited resources fuels local tensions.

Absence of a Comprehensive Policy

• No uniform refugee law means refugees are treated differently based on their origin and circumstances.

• This prevents the development of consistent, long-term solutions.

Social and Political Tensions

• Refugees are often politicized as threats to national security and economic stability.

• This fuels discrimination and hostility in host communities.

Regional Implications

• Refugee issues impact bilateral relations and regional stability.

• Example: The Rohingya crisis has strained India’s relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar.

Challenges of Repatriation and Integration

• Voluntary repatriation is often not possible due to ongoing insecurity.

• Local integration is difficult due to legal and social barriers.

• Many refugees face long-term displacement without basic rights or opportunities.

India’s Way Forward on Refugee Management

1. Legal Reforms

• Need for a Comprehensive Refugee Law:

  • Would provide clarity and consistency in handling refugees.

  • Align India's refugee policy with international standards (like the 1951 Refugee Convention).

  • Help balance national security concerns with humanitarian responsibilities.

2. Strengthening Regional Cooperation

• Role in SAARC and BIMSTEC:

  • India should lead regional dialogue on refugee issues using platforms like SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) and BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation).

• Regional Approach:

  • Focus on addressing root causes of displacement (e.g., conflict, poverty, environmental disasters).

  • Support stronger refugee protection mechanisms at the local and regional levels.

3. Improving Humanitarian Response

• Enhancing Access to Basic Services:

  • Ensure refugees have better access to education, healthcare, and livelihood opportunities.

  • Promotes self-reliance among refugees and reduces the burden on host communities.

• International Partnerships:

  • Strengthen collaboration with UNHCR and other international organizations.

  • Leverage international resources and expertise to manage refugee inflows and find durable solutions.

Balancing Security and Humanitarianism

• National Security remains a priority, but it must be balanced with dignity and compassion towards refugees.

• Refugee management is not just a humanitarian obligation but also a strategic necessity for:

  • Regional stability,

  • Strengthening India's global image as a responsible power,

  • Preventing social unrest caused by unmanaged displacement.

B. Debating Regional Strategies: SAARC and BIMSTEC SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)

Background

• Established: December 8, 1985

• First Summit: Dhaka, Bangladesh

• Headquarters: Kathmandu, Nepal

• Founding Members: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka (Afghanistan joined in 2007 as the 8th member)

Origin

• Initiated by Bangladesh’s President Ziaur Rahman in the late 1970s.

• Motivation: Recognition that South Asia’s shared problems of poverty, illiteracy, underdevelopment, and socio-economic inequality could be better addressed through regional cooperation rather than isolated national efforts.

Objectives of SAARC (As per SAARC Charter)

• Promote the Welfare of the People:

  • Accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region.

• Foster Collective Self-Reliance:

  • Work together to create stronger, more self-reliant economies and societies.

• Strengthen Collaboration:

  • Enhance active cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, and education.

• Contribute to Global Peace and Stability:

  • Work with international and regional organizations to promote stability.

• Respect Sovereignty and Non-Interference:

  • SAARC operates strictly on the principles of mutual respect for sovereignty, territorial integrity, and non-interference in internal matters.

Achievements of SAARC

1. Trade and Economic Cooperation

• SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) Agreement (2004):

  • Goal: Gradually reduce tariffs and trade barriers among member countries.

  • Achievements: A formal framework for lowering trade duties was created, promoting the idea of an integrated South Asian economy.

  • Challenges:

    • Trade among SAARC countries remains low (~5% of total trade) compared to other regions like ASEAN (25-30%).

    • Political tensions, especially India-Pakistan relations, limit full potential.

      
      

• South Asian Regional Standards Organisation (SARSO):

  • Established to harmonize product standards across member countries to facilitate easier and more predictable trade.

2. Cultural Exchanges

• SAARC Cultural Centre (Colombo, Sri Lanka):

  • Promotes cultural awareness, heritage conservation, and artistic collaboration.

• SAARC Film Festival:

  • Held annually to encourage regional film-making and cultural storytelling.

• Scholarships and Fellowships:

  • SAARC provides education exchange programs to nurture academic and cultural ties.

• People-to-People Initiatives:

  • Sporting events like the SAARC Football Cup foster regional camaraderie.

    
    

3. Disaster Management and Climate Cooperation

• SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC):

  • Based in Gandhinagar, India, it focuses on regional cooperation for disaster risk reduction and capacity building.

  • Coordinates strategies for responding to natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, and cyclones.

• Environment and Climate Change Initiatives:

  • SAARC Environment Action Plan addresses regional environmental degradation.

  • Regional projects include tackling glacier melting and promoting clean energy.

4. Health and Social Welfare

• SAARC Tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS Centres:

  • Located in Nepal, these centers facilitate joint research, information sharing, and treatment frameworks to combat communicable diseases.

• SAARC Gender InfoBase:

  • Works towards gender empowerment by sharing best practices for women’s development and rights.

India’s Role in SAARC

• Largest Economy and Key Driver:

  • India accounts for about 70% of SAARC’s GDP and population.

• Vision for Connectivity:

  • India advocates for improving physical, digital, and people-to-people connectivity within South Asia.

• Challenges:

  • Struggles to overcome bilateral disputes (especially with Pakistan) that affect SAARC's cohesion.

• Alternative Strategy:

  • India has begun focusing more on BIMSTEC, viewing it as a more "functional" platform compared to the politically deadlocked SAARC.

Limitations of SAARC

Despite being a promising platform for regional cooperation, SAARC has been largely ineffective in achieving its ambitious goals. Several factors have contributed to its underperformance:

1. India-Pakistan Political Rivalries

• Persistent Hostility: The continuing tensions, especially over Kashmir and issues like cross-border terrorism, have repeatedly crippled SAARC’s agenda.

• Summits Disrupted: Since 2014, SAARC Summits have either been postponed or suspended. For example, the 19th SAARC Summit (Islamabad, 2016) was cancelled after India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and Bhutan withdrew citing Pakistan’s role in supporting terrorism.

• Bilateral Issues Hijack Multilateral Agenda: Instead of focusing on collective regional challenges, SAARC meetings are often overshadowed by India-Pakistan disputes, paralyzing decision-making.

2. Lack of Implementation

• Declarations without Delivery: While SAARC has signed many agreements and declarations (e.g., on terrorism, trade, environment), few have been effectively implemented.

• Political Will Deficiency: Member states often lack the political commitment necessary to translate promises into tangible action.

• Resource Limitations: Without strong financial mechanisms or enforcement capabilities, SAARC’s initiatives often remain stuck on paper.

3. Structural Issues

• Consensus Principle: All decisions must be made unanimously, meaning that even one country’s dissent can block progress. This often results in deadlock, particularly when political tensions rise.

• Absence of Dispute Resolution Mechanism: Unlike organizations like the EU or ASEAN, SAARC lacks any credible system to mediate or resolve conflicts among members.

4. Economic Disparity and Asymmetry

• India’s Dominance: India accounts for over 70% of SAARC’s GDP and population. Smaller countries like Bhutan, Maldives, and Nepal often feel overwhelmed or sidelined.

• Fear of Indian Hegemony: This perceived imbalance creates mistrust, leading smaller states to resist deeper integration initiatives that they fear would benefit India disproportionately.

India’s Role in SAARC and Its Strategy for Engagement

As the largest and most influential SAARC member, India’s actions significantly shape the organization’s trajectory.

India’s Vision for SAARC

• India views SAARC as a platform for promoting:

  • Regional stability and peace

  • Economic integration and connectivity

  • Cooperation on common challenges like poverty, terrorism, climate change, and disaster management.

• Neighborhood First Policy: Under this policy, India places emphasis on strengthening ties with its South Asian neighbors, using SAARC where possible.

Why BIMSTEC?

• No Pakistan Factor: BIMSTEC does not include Pakistan, thus sidestepping Indo-Pak tensions.

• Economic and Strategic Importance: BIMSTEC connects South Asia to Southeast Asia, opening larger trade and security opportunities (e.g., Bay of Bengal maritime security).

• New Platforms for Cooperation: Energy grids, connectivity corridors, counter-terrorism cooperation, and blue economy initiatives are being pushed through BIMSTEC.

India’s Strategic Outlook

• Keep SAARC alive as a symbolic regional forum, mainly for dialogue and soft diplomacy.

• Strengthen sub-regional groupings like BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal) for practical cooperation on connectivity, trade, and energy.

• Diversify regional engagement through BIMSTEC, IORA (Indian Ocean Rim Association), and bilateral ties.

Way Forward for SAARC

To revitalize SAARC and enhance its effectiveness in addressing regional issues, several steps can be considered:

1. De-politicizing SAARC

• Political Rivalries: To make SAARC more effective, bilateral disputes, particularly the ongoing India-Pakistan tensions, should be set aside in favor of regional cooperation.

• Confidence-building Measures: Third-party mediation and confidence-building initiatives could help reduce tension between India and Pakistan, enabling smoother collaboration on regional issues.

• Peaceful Dialogues: Political leaders could prioritize a peaceful, pragmatic approach that places regional stability above national conflicts, ensuring that the organization can function despite bilateral differences.

2. Strengthening Implementation Mechanisms

• Concrete Action: SAARC needs to focus on implementation and follow-through. This includes developing clear monitoring and evaluation frameworks that will ensure timely execution of decisions.

• Accountability: Building robust systems to track the progress of initiatives will encourage accountability and help overcome the stagnation that has hindered previous projects.

3. Promoting Connectivity

• Infrastructure Investments: Improving physical infrastructure (e.g., roads, railways, ports) and enhancing digital connectivity will be vital to boosting intra-regional trade.

• Trade Liberalization: Reducing tariffs and addressing non-tariff barriers will open up greater avenues for economic cooperation, promoting regional economic integration.

4. Empowering Smaller Members

• Inclusive Participation: For SAARC to be more effective, smaller member states must feel that their voices are equally valued. Measures should be taken to empower these nations and ensure their active participation in decision-making.

• Building Trust: Ensuring that smaller countries do not perceive the platform as being India-dominated will foster better cooperation and mutual respect.

5. Leveraging Complementary Frameworks

• Integration with Other Regional Platforms: SAARC should collaborate with other regional organizations, like BIMSTEC and ASEAN, to expand its role in global and inter-regional dialogues.

• Synergy with Other Regional Forums: Rather than functioning as an isolated entity, SAARC could be seen as complementary to platforms such as BIMSTEC, allowing South Asia to actively participate in broader global discussions.

Comparing SAARC and BIMSTEC

Geopolitical Significance

• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) was established in 1985 with a focus on regional cooperation among South Asian countries. Its original members include Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, with Afghanistan joining later. SAARC’s primary goals are to promote economic cooperation, alleviate poverty, and advance social progress in South Asia.

However, SAARC’s effectiveness has been compromised by political tensions, particularly between India and Pakistan. The ongoing rivalry between these two countries has stalled progress, and the decision-making process, requiring unanimity from all members, often leads to deadlock.

• BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation), on the other hand, was formed in 1997 and encompasses both South and Southeast Asian nations. Its members include Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. BIMSTEC serves as a bridge between South Asia and Southeast Asia, with a focus on pragmatic and sectoral collaboration, notably in areas such as trade, connectivity, energy, and security.

Unlike SAARC, BIMSTEC avoids the complications of India-Pakistan tensions by excluding Pakistan from its membership. This allows BIMSTEC to concentrate on functional cooperation, which has made it more agile and practical in advancing regional initiatives.

SAARC

• Strengths:

  • Cultural and Historical Bonds: The shared cultural and historical ties among South Asian countries provide a strong foundation for collaboration.

  • Development Focus: Through initiatives like the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), SAARC aims to boost intra-regional trade and economic cooperation.

  • Disaster Management: SAARC has made significant strides in disaster management and social development.

    
    

• Weaknesses:

  • Political Deadlock: The rivalry between India and Pakistan has led to frequent cancellations or postponements of summits and has paralyzed decision-making within the organization.

  • Unanimity Decision-Making: The requirement for unanimous decisions makes it difficult to implement reforms or take action on pressing issues.

  • Limited Security Mandate: SAARC’s focus on limited aspects of security has failed to address more comprehensive regional challenges.

BIMSTEC

• Strengths:

  • Broader Geopolitical Reach: BIMSTEC’s membership spans both South Asia and Southeast Asia, enhancing its strategic relevance, especially in the Indo-Pacific region.

  • Sectoral Focus: BIMSTEC has a pragmatic and targeted approach, focusing on key sectors like trade, connectivity, energy, and security.

  • India’s Leadership: India’s growing influence in BIMSTEC is beneficial for advancing regional projects, including connectivity initiatives such as the BIMSTEC Master Plan for Transport Connectivity.

  
  

• Weaknesses

  • Institutional Weakness: BIMSTEC’s institutional capacity is underdeveloped, making it challenging to implement and monitor initiatives effectively.

  • Bureaucratic and Political Challenges: Like SAARC, BIMSTEC faces challenges in terms of coordination and political disagreements, which can slow progress on shared objectives.

  • Overly Ambitious Mandate: BIMSTEC’s broad agenda, which spans 14 sectors, risks diluting focus and stretching its limited resources too thin.

India’s Strategic Calculus: SAARC vs. BIMSTEC

India has increasingly shifted its focus towards BIMSTEC, prioritizing it over SAARC. The frustrations with SAARC’s stagnation, particularly due to the India-Pakistan rivalry, have pushed India to look for more flexible and effective regional cooperation platforms.

• BIMSTEC as a Strategic Alternative: By focusing on BIMSTEC, India aims to enhance connectivity, economic integration, and security in the Indo-Pacific region, aligning with its 'Act East' policy and broader Indo-Pacific strategy. BIMSTEC, excluding Pakistan, allows India to sidestep the political hurdles that have plagued SAARC and engage in cooperative projects without the constraints of bilateral tensions.

• Leveraging SAARC for Soft Power: Despite BIMSTEC’s increasing importance, India continues to use SAARC as a platform to project soft power in South Asia. Through initiatives like disaster relief, cultural exchanges, and educational scholarships, India can demonstrate leadership and foster goodwill within the region.

• Balancing Regional and Extra-Regional Interests: India’s approach to SAARC and BIMSTEC reflects its need to balance regional dynamics with extra-regional interests. SAARC remains a valuable forum for addressing regional issues, while BIMSTEC provides a broader strategic platform to enhance India’s global standing and connectivity with Southeast Asia.

Effectiveness and Challenges: A Comparative Outlook

• Scope and Membership: BIMSTEC’s broader scope, with members from both South and Southeast Asia, gives it a unique geopolitical advantage. This expanded reach allows BIMSTEC to facilitate connectivity and cooperation between India, Southeast Asia, and the Bay of Bengal region, which is strategically important for global trade.

• Political Constraints: SAARC’s effectiveness has been severely limited by the political deadlock between India and Pakistan, making it difficult to achieve meaningful cooperation. BIMSTEC, by excluding Pakistan, avoids this issue, enabling more focused and practical cooperation.

• Focus Areas: While SAARC’s mandate is broad, covering social, economic, and cultural issues, its work has often been hindered by political disagreements. In contrast, BIMSTEC’s sector-specific approach to trade, connectivity, and energy has made it more relevant to contemporary regional needs.

Way Forward for India

India’s foreign policy strategy highlights the importance of both SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) and BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) in advancing regional cooperation.

1. Reinvigorating SAARC: India’s focus on BIMSTEC is well understood, but it must not disregard SAARC. India advocates for reforms within SAARC, emphasizing flexible decision-making processes and encouraging more active participation from all member states to increase its relevance.

2. Promoting Complementarity between SAARC and BIMSTEC: Both organizations offer distinct strengths. While SAARC can focus on socio-economic issues within South Asia, BIMSTEC is designed to promote connectivity and security cooperation across both South and Southeast Asia. India should leverage the complementary nature of these platforms to tackle regional problems effectively.

3. Building Consensus among Member States: India must build consensus and foster cooperation among the members of both organizations, particularly focusing on bilateral relationships with individual countries to align them with regional initiatives.

India’s Strategic Role in South Asia

India’s strategic leadership is pivotal in South Asia, where it has used its geopolitical position, economic power, and historical ties to the region to foster regional stability, economic development, and integration. India’s strategy is shaped by two key principles:

1. Promoting Stability and Economic Development: India’s vision is for a stable and prosperous South Asia, which is vital to India’s own growth and security. India promotes multilateral trading environments and inclusive growth through platforms like SAARC and BIMSTEC.

2. Regional Connectivity and Collective Security: India’s strategy involves strengthening regional connectivity, boosting trade and energy cooperation, and promoting collective security across the region. BIMSTEC, as part of India’s ‘Act East Policy,’ is key in expanding this regional cooperation to include Southeast Asia.

The Role of the “Neighborhood First” Policy

India’s "Neighborhood First" policy, launched in 2014, emphasizes the importance of proactive engagement with South Asian neighbors through mutual trust and cooperative development. Key aspects of this policy include:

1. Economic and Infrastructure Development: India has focused on regional connectivity projects like the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project and the India-Nepal cross-border railway to promote self-reliance and reduce dependency on external powers like China.

2. Energy Cooperation: India promotes energy trade and cooperation across South Asia, exemplified by projects like the South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) power grid. These initiatives aim to create interdependence and mutual benefits through shared energy resources.

3. Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR): India has built a positive image in the region through swift disaster relief responses, such as during the 2015 Nepal earthquake and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. These efforts align with the "Neighborhood First" policy’s goal of inclusive and sustainable development.

4. Leveraging SAARC and BIMSTEC: While India has shifted its focus away from SAARC due to geopolitical issues, particularly with Pakistan, it still engages with the platform for regional issues like poverty, health, and education. India actively promotes BIMSTEC as a preferred alternative, given its focus on connectivity, trade, and security cooperation.

India’s Regional Strategies: Challenges

India faces a variety of challenges in asserting its leadership and maintaining influence within South Asia. Some of the key issues that complicate India’s regional strategy include:

1. Balancing China’s Influence: One of the biggest challenges for India in South Asia is countering China’s growing influence, particularly through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and other economic investments. Countries like Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal have strengthened their ties with China, which has led to competition for regional influence. For example, China’s investment in the Hambantota Port in Sri Lanka and the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) are significant strategic moves that challenge India’s influence in the region. In response, India has increased its own investments in regional infrastructure and formed partnerships with countries like Japan and the United States to provide alternative development models that counterbalance China's presence.

2. Addressing Anti-India Sentiment: A recurring challenge for India in the region is the anti-India sentiment that exists in some of its neighboring countries. Many South Asian countries view India as dominating or interfering in their internal affairs. For example, in Nepal, India has been accused of using its influence to shape the country’s constitution and even imposing blockades. Similarly, in Pakistan, India is often portrayed as an aggressor, which heightens mistrust between the two nations. India’s strategy to manage this involves emphasizing mutual respect and partnership, fostering goodwill through cultural exchanges, educational scholarships, and people-to-people connections.

3. Managing Domestic Pressures: Domestic political considerations also weigh heavily on India’s foreign policy, especially on sensitive issues like migration and border security. For instance, tensions have risen over India’s Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and how it impacts the treatment of undocumented migrants, particularly those from Bangladesh. These internal pressures complicate India’s ability to engage in regional diplomacy and to handle the challenges posed by migration and border security.

4. BIMSTEC’s Challenges and SAARC’s Limitations: While SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) faces challenges due to political tensions, particularly between India and Pakistan, BIMSTEC offers a promising alternative.

India’s Way Forward

To overcome these challenges, India must adopt a forward-thinking and strategic approach to strengthen its regional influence and contribute to regional stability. Here are the ways forward:

1. Economic Integration: Strengthening economic ties with neighboring countries can enhance India’s regional influence. By broadening economic cooperation, India can bring its neighbors into a shared commitment to regional stability. One important step is to reinvigorate the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), which can help reduce trade barriers and increase economic interdependence across the region.

2. Regional Connectivity Promotion: Improving infrastructure such as roads, railways, and digital connectivity can significantly enhance regional integration and reduce dependence on external powers. Projects like the Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) Motor Vehicle Agreement should be prioritized to foster intra-regional trade and mobility.

3. Enhancing Multilateral Engagement: India should actively engage in both SAARC and BIMSTEC, using each to focus on specific regional issues. SAARC can be a platform for addressing socio-economic issues such as health, education, and poverty, while BIMSTEC can be leveraged for deeper cooperation in trade, connectivity, and security. By managing these regional frameworks effectively, India can address their shortcomings and ensure a more cohesive regional approach.

4. Balancing External Influences: While countering China’s growing influence in South Asia, India must also balance its regional strategies with strong partnerships with like-minded countries and organizations. Strategic partnerships, such as those within the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) with the United States, Japan, and Australia, will help India strengthen its position without escalating tensions with China. This approach will also ensure that India maintains its influence in the region without provoking direct confrontations.

Soft Power Building and Trust

India should continue to leverage its soft power, such as its rich cultural heritage, educational opportunities, and media outreach, to foster goodwill and trust among its neighbors. Educational exchanges, tourism initiatives, and people-to-people diplomacy can play a vital role in mitigating anti-India sentiments and building positive relationships across South Asia. By emphasizing shared cultural, historical, and social ties, India can enhance its influence and promote stability in the region.