Comparative Political System Most Important Question | DSC-17 BA Hons Political Science Semester 6

Q.1- How have Britain's political traditions evolved, and how have they influenced the current political system?

Ans - Introduction

Britain’s political system has been shaped by centuries of gradual evolution rather than revolution. Its political traditions are rooted in historical events, legal reforms, and institutional developments that have laid the foundation for modern democratic governance. These traditions have not only influenced Britain’s political culture but also defined the structure and function of its current political system.

1. Evolution of Britain's Political Traditions

a) Medieval Foundations and Magna Carta (1215)

The signing of the Magna Carta marked the beginning of constitutional governance. It limited the absolute power of the monarch and laid the groundwork for the rule of law and the idea of accountable government.

b) Emergence of Parliament

The English Parliament gradually developed from a royal advisory council to a legislative body. The 13th and 14th centuries saw the formation of the House of Commons and House of Lords, establishing a bicameral structure.

c) The Glorious Revolution (1688) and the Bill of Rights (1689)

This event was pivotal in shifting power from the monarchy to Parliament. The Bill of Rights affirmed parliamentary sovereignty, individual liberties, and restricted royal prerogatives.

d) Rise of Cabinet Government and Prime Ministerial Leadership

In the 18th century, real political power began to move toward the cabinet and the Prime Minister, especially as the monarch became more symbolic. This tradition persists, with the PM as the head of government.

2. Influence on the Current Political System

a) Parliamentary Sovereignty

One of the most significant legacies is the principle of parliamentary sovereignty. Parliament remains the supreme law-making body, reflecting the long-standing tradition of legislative supremacy.

b) Unwritten Constitution and Legal Flexibility

Britain’s constitution is not codified in a single document. This reflects the tradition of gradual change and allows the system to adapt without rigid constitutional amendments.

c) Rule of Law and Independent Judiciary

The tradition established since Magna Carta ensures all citizens, including the government, are subject to the law. Judicial independence supports democratic accountability and civil liberties.

d) Constitutional Monarchy

The monarch serves as a ceremonial head of state, symbolizing national unity. This reflects a traditional balance between continuity and modern democracy.

e) Political Culture of Gradual Reform

Britain’s tradition favors incremental reform over radical change. Examples include the gradual extension of the right to vote in the 19th and 20th centuries, and recent devolution reforms in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

Conclusion

Britain’s political traditions have evolved through centuries of historical experience, legal reform, and institutional development. These traditions have created a stable, flexible, and democratic political system marked by parliamentary sovereignty, constitutional monarchy, and a strong legal culture. As a result, the British political system today is a product of its deeply rooted political heritage, which continues to shape its operation and values.

Q.2 Describe the process of Britain's constitutional development and explain how it differs from the constitutions of other countries?

Ans- Introduction

Britain’s constitutional development is unique due to its uncodified and evolutionary nature. Unlike many countries that have a single, written constitution established at a fixed point in time, Britain's constitution has developed gradually over centuries through statutes, conventions, judicial decisions, and historical documents. This makes it flexible but also distinct from the formal, codified constitutions found in most other nations.

1. Process of Britain’s Constitutional Development

a) Magna Carta (1215)

The Magna Carta was a foundational moment that established the principle of the rule of law, limiting the monarch’s power and asserting that even the king is subject to law.

b) Development of Parliament

From the 13th century onwards, Parliament evolved from a feudal council into a bicameral legislature (House of Commons and House of Lords), gaining increasing control over taxation and legislation.

c) The Bill of Rights (1689)

Following the Glorious Revolution, this document formally limited royal power and affirmed parliamentary sovereignty, setting key principles like regular elections and freedom of speech in Parliament.

d) Acts of Union (1707 & 1801)

These acts unified England with Scotland and later Ireland, shaping the structure of the United Kingdom and its political system.

e) Reform Acts (19th and 20th centuries)

A series of acts gradually expanded suffrage, making the system more democratic. The Representation of the People Acts were especially important in granting universal suffrage.

f) Recent Developments (Late 20th – 21st century)

Reforms like devolution to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the Human Rights Act 1998, and the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (which created the UK Supreme Court) demonstrate the constitution’s continuing evolution.

2. How It Differs from Other Countries’ Constitutions

a) Uncodified vs Codified

Most countries, like the United States or India, have a single written constitution. Britain, in contrast, has an uncodified constitution made up of various sources—statutes, conventions, judicial decisions, and key documents.

b) Parliamentary Sovereignty vs Constitutional Supremacy

In the UK, Parliament is sovereign, and can make or unmake any law. In codified systems (like the U.S.), the constitution is supreme, and any law violating it can be struck down by the judiciary.

c) Flexibility vs Rigidity

Britain’s constitution can be changed relatively easily through ordinary legislation. In contrast, countries with codified constitutions often require complex amendment procedures, sometimes involving supermajorities or referenda.

d) Role of Judiciary

British courts cannot strike down Acts of Parliament (due to parliamentary sovereignty). In contrast, countries with codified constitutions often grant constitutional courts the power to review legislation.

Conclusion

Britain’s constitutional development is a product of history, shaped by events and reforms rather than a single defining document. This gradual evolution has produced a system that is flexible, adaptable, and historically rich, but fundamentally different from the codified and rigid constitutions of many other democratic states. Its uniqueness lies in the balance.

Q.3 How did the U.S. Civil Rights Movement impact American politics and society? Give examples.

Ans- Introduction

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s was a landmark social and political campaign aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. It brought about transformative changes in U.S. laws, political alignments, and social attitudes, reshaping American democracy and society.

1. Political Impact of the Civil Rights Movement

a) Landmark Legislation

• Civil Rights Act of 1964: Prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public places, employment, and federally funded programs.

• Voting Rights Act of 1965: Banned literacy tests and other discriminatory practices that prevented African Americans from voting, especially in the South.

• These laws strengthened federal power to protect civil rights and expanded democracy.

b) Shift in Party Alignments

• The movement led to a realignment of political parties:

  • African Americans increasingly supported the Democratic Party, especially after President Lyndon B. Johnson championed civil rights legislation.

  • Southern white voters gradually moved to the Republican Party, especially after Richard Nixon’s “Southern Strategy” that appealed to states' rights and traditional values.

  
  

c) Rise of Minority Political Representation

• The Voting Rights Act empowered more African Americans to vote and run for office.

• Leaders like John Lewis, Barbara Jordan, and Shirley Chisholm emerged in U.S. politics.

• Today, organizations like the Congressional Black Caucus play a strong role in advocating for minority rights.

2. Social Impact of the Civil Rights Movement

a) End of Legal Segregation

• The movement dismantled Jim Crow laws, which enforced segregation in the South.

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) had already declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional, but the Civil Rights Movement helped enforce it.

b) Cultural and Psychological Empowerment

• Inspired racial pride, dignity, and unity among African Americans.

• Promoted the rise of Black identity movements, such as Black Power, Afrocentrism, and Black Lives Matter (as a modern legacy).

c) Inspiration for Other Movements

• The tactics of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience, popularized by Martin Luther King Jr., inspired other marginalized groups:

  • Women's Liberation Movement

  • LGBTQ+ rights movements

  • Latino and Native American rights campaigns

d) Societal Awareness and Media Role

• Televised coverage of events like the Selma marches and Birmingham protests exposed the brutality of segregation, generating national and global sympathy and pressure for change.

Examples

• Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56): Sparked by Rosa Parks, it led to the desegregation of public buses and launched MLK into national leadership.

• March on Washington (1963): Where MLK delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech, pressuring Congress to pass civil rights laws.

• Freedom Rides and Sit-Ins: Demonstrated the courage of young activists in challenging segregation in the Deep South.

Conclusion

The Civil Rights Movement was a turning point in U.S. history. It ended institutionalized racism, expanded civil liberties, and redefined American democracy. Its legacy continues to influence modern political debates, social justice movements, and national identity, proving its lasting impact on American politics and society.

Q.4 What are the main features of Brazil’s 1988 Constitution, and why is it significant in the country’s constitutional development?

Ans-  Brazil’s 1988 Constitution, also known as the “Citizen Constitution”, marked a turning point in the country's political and legal history. Enacted after two decades of military dictatorship (1964–1985), it laid the foundation for democracy, human rights, and social inclusion in modern Brazil. Its main features reflect a strong commitment to civil liberties, separation of powers, and federalism, making it a milestone in Brazil’s constitutional development.

1. Main Features of the 1988 Constitution

a) Democratic Framework

• Established Brazil as a federal presidential republic with a multi-party system.

• Reinforced universal suffrage, including mandatory voting for literate citizens aged 18–70 and optional for others.

b) Separation of Powers

• Clearly defines the Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branches with checks and balances.

• Strengthens the role of the Federal Supreme Court (STF) in protecting constitutional rights.

c) Federalism and Decentralization

• Brazil is a federation of states, municipalities, and the federal district.

• The Constitution grants autonomy to states and municipalities, allowing local governments to manage education, health, and taxation.

d) Strong Protection of Civil Rights

• Guarantees a wide range of fundamental rights including:

  • Freedom of speech, religion, and press

  • Right to education, health care, housing, and social security

• Introduces collective rights and instruments like the public civil action (ação civil pública) and writ of habeas data.

e) Social Justice and Inclusion

• Focus on reducing inequality through affirmative policies, labor rights, and protections for indigenous peoples and minorities.

• Recognized land rights for Indigenous communities and agrarian reform.

f) Role of Direct Democracy

• Citizens can directly influence legislation through popular initiatives, plebiscites, and referendums.

2. Significance in Brazil’s Constitutional Development

a) Break from Authoritarian Rule

• The 1988 Constitution symbolizes Brazil’s transition to democracy after 21 years of military rule.

• It guarantees civilian control of the military and ensures that political power is derived from the people.

b) Institutional Stability

• Helped build institutional legitimacy and legal order in a country with a history of constitutional instability (Brazil has had seven constitutions).

c) Promotion of Human Rights

• Brought Brazil in line with international human rights standards, making rights enforceable through the judiciary.

• Encouraged a more rights-conscious civil society.

d) Foundation for Economic and Social Policy

• Provided the basis for modern welfare programs like Bolsa Família, and laid the groundwork for improved public healthcare (SUS) and education systems.

e) Still Under Debate

• While progressive, the Constitution has been amended over 100 times, reflecting political tensions and evolving demands.

• Ongoing debates exist around issues like judicial activism, political reform, and social spending limits.

Conclusion

Brazil’s 1988 Constitution is a landmark in its constitutional history. With its strong emphasis on democracy, human rights, federalism, and social justice, it established the legal and institutional framework for modern Brazil. Despite challenges and reforms, it remains a vital document that reflects the aspirations of a democratic and inclusive society.

Q.5 Write a note on the problems of balance of power between the states and the central government in Brazil’s federal system.

Ans- Introduction

Brazil's federal system, enshrined in the 1988 Constitution, establishes a division of powers between the central government (federal) and the 26 states and municipalities. While this structure was designed to promote local autonomy and regional diversity, conflicts over the balance of power between federal and state governments have persisted throughout Brazil's history. These tensions have resulted from issues related to fiscal federalism, political authority, and constitutional interpretation.

1. Fiscal Imbalance and Financial Dependency

a) Unequal Distribution of Resources

• A significant issue in Brazil's federal system is the fiscal imbalance between the central government and the states. While the federal government has control over much of the country’s revenue collection, a substantial portion of these funds is redistributed to the states, often leaving some states heavily dependent on federal funds.

• Wealthier states such as São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro often argue that they contribute disproportionately to federal revenue without receiving proportional investments in return.

b) Federal Control Over Key Revenues

• The federal government controls key sources of revenue, such as income taxes, social security contributions, and import/export duties. Many states rely heavily on transfers from the federal government to fund their programs and services.

• This fiscal dependency undermines state autonomy and raises concerns about the centralization of power. States with fewer resources face greater challenges in financing their policies independently.

c) Ineffective Redistribution

• While there are redistributive mechanisms (e.g., Fundo de Participação dos Estados), these mechanisms have been criticized for being inefficient and not addressing the needs of the poorest states effectively, exacerbating regional inequality.

2. Political Tensions and Rivalries

a) Political Influence of the States

• Brazil's federal system gives states significant powers, particularly in areas like education, healthcare, and public safety. However, states often find their decisions limited by the central government's political and economic agenda.

• Political tensions between the central government and individual states frequently arise during national crises (e.g., economic downturns or public health emergencies), where states may push for more autonomy in decision-making and funding.

b) Conflicts Over Governance and Policy Implementation

• State governors and the president often belong to different political parties, leading to friction. For example, during economic crises, governors may resist federal austerity measures or challenge the central government’s economic policies.

• Governors of states also sometimes seek to undermine federal policies if they believe such measures do not serve their state’s interests or if they feel the federal government is imposing a one-size-fits-all approach that does not account for regional differences.

3. Constitutional Disputes and Legal Challenges

a) Ambiguities in Constitutional Interpretation

• The 1988 Constitution provides for a division of powers, but its interpretation has led to disputes over the boundaries of state and federal authority. For example, disagreements have arisen over the role of states in environmental regulation or public security, with some states questioning the federal government's ability to intervene in areas traditionally managed at the local level.

b) Centralization of Power by the Federal Government

• Over time, the federal government has increasingly used decrees, executive orders, and federal intervention to override or bypass state laws, especially in matters related to security and economic management.

• The Supreme Federal Court (STF) has played a central role in resolving these conflicts, but its decisions sometimes shift the balance of power in favor of the central government, which creates further tension between the two levels of government.

4. Regional Disparities and Unequal Development

a) Economic Disparities

• There are significant economic disparities between the wealthier and poorer states in Brazil. The richest states, such as São Paulo, Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro, have greater economic and fiscal power, while the North and Northeast regions are economically underdeveloped and more reliant on federal support.

• The central government often has to allocate resources to address regional inequalities, but its centralized control over key financial policies often means that states’ local needs are not addressed effectively.

b) Resistance to Federal Interventions

• States with historically less economic power or autonomy may resist federal interventions that do not align with local preferences. For example, states with large rural populations may object to federal environmental regulations that they feel restrict their economic activities (e.g., farming or mining), or may oppose centralized education policies that do not reflect local needs.

5. Efforts for Reform and Solutions

a) Fiscal Reforms

• There have been calls for reforming Brazil's fiscal system to provide more equitable financial autonomy to states. Proposals such as the adoption of a more decentralized tax system or the redistribution of revenues based on economic capacity have been discussed.

b) Strengthening Federalism

• There is also growing interest in strengthening federalism by clarifying the roles and responsibilities of both the federal and state governments in key policy areas like healthcare, education, and infrastructure.

Conclusion

The balance of power between Brazil's federal and state governments remains a complex and contentious issue. While the 1988 Constitution provides for a federal structure, tensions between the two levels of government persist due to fiscal imbalances, political rivalries, and constitutional ambiguities. Economic disparities, regional inequalities, and conflicts over policy implementation further complicate the relationship. Continued reforms are necessary to address the inefficiencies and tensions that limit the effectiveness of Brazil’s federal system, promoting a more equitable distribution of power and resourcesQ.2

Q.6 What are the key features of Russia’s 1993 Constitution and how does its separation of powers system function?

Ans- Introduction

The 1993 Constitution of Russia established the foundation for the modern Russian state, following the collapse of the Soviet Union. It created a semi-presidential system with clear divisions of power between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. However, while it outlines a separation of powers, the practical functioning of the Russian government often leads to questions about the balance of authority and the centralization of power in the hands of the executive.

1. Key Features of Russia’s 1993 Constitution

a) Semi-Presidential System

• The 1993 Constitution established a semi-presidential system of government, which divides powers between a President and a Prime Minister.

• The President is the head of state and head of government, wielding significant executive powers. The Prime Minister, appointed by the President, acts as the head of the government, but his authority is often subordinate to the President's will.

b) Strong Executive Power

• The President has broad executive powers, including:

  • Issuing decrees and directives that have the force of law.

  • Vetoing legislation passed by the Federal Assembly.

  • Appointing key government officials, including the Prime Minister (with approval from the State Duma).

  • Directing foreign policy and the military.

• The Constitution outlines that the President can also dissolve the lower house of parliament (State Duma) if it repeatedly fails to approve the President’s government.

c) Legislative Structure

• The Federal Assembly is a bicameral legislature, consisting of:

  • The State Duma (lower house) – consists of 450 deputies, who are elected via mixed-member proportional representation.

  • The Federation Council (upper house) – consists of representatives from each of Russia’s federal subjects (e.g., regions, republics, and cities).

• The State Duma has the power to pass laws, approve the budget, and approve the Prime Minister nominated by the President, though the President has veto power over most of the Duma’s decisions.

d) Judicial Independence and the Constitutional Court

• The Constitution emphasizes judicial independence, granting the Constitutional Court the power to review laws and government actions for constitutionality.

• However, in practice, judicial independence is often compromised due to political influence from the executive branch.

2. Separation of Powers in the 1993 Constitution

a) Executive Power

• The President holds a dominant position in the system. The President’s powers are expansive and include:

  • The authority to issue decrees on key national issues.

  • Control over the military and foreign relations, along with the ability to appoint regional governors (who once were directly elected) and dissolve the State Duma under certain conditions.

  • The ability to dissolve the State Duma and call for early elections if the Duma rejects or fails to approve his Prime Minister.

• While the Prime Minister holds executive powers related to government administration, their power is often limited by the President’s control over decision-making processes, leaving the role of the Prime Minister largely ceremonial in nature.

b) Legislative Power

• The Federal Assembly (bicameral legislature) is responsible for passing laws and approving the national budget. However, its powers are somewhat restricted by the President’s ability to veto legislation.

• The State Duma plays a crucial role in lawmaking, but its effectiveness is often limited by the dominance of the President and the pro-Putin majority in the legislature. The Federation Council, meanwhile, represents regions but holds more of a consultative role rather than a strong legislative function.

• Checks on power: The State Duma can propose legislation, but the President can veto these proposals, which the Duma can override only in rare cases, ensuring that the executive maintains significant control.

c) Judicial Power

• The Constitutional Court is meant to be the ultimate authority on constitutional issues, but the independence of the judiciary has been under question due to its susceptibility to political influence from the executive branch.

• In theory, the judiciary is tasked with ensuring that laws and government actions comply with the Constitution, but in practice, courts often reflect the political realities of the executive’s dominance in Russia.

3. Practical Implications of the Separation of Powers

a) Centralization of Power

• While the 1993 Constitution theoretically creates a separation of powers, the executive branch, led by the President, holds disproportionate control over the country's governance. The President’s extensive powers often overshadow the legislature and judiciary, limiting their independent action.

• Presidential dominance is evident in the political environment, where opposition parties often struggle to challenge the government effectively due to the centralization of power and restrictions on political freedoms.

b) Weak Legislative and Judicial Branches

• The State Duma and the Federation Council are often seen as rubber-stamp institutions, given the President’s ability to dominate legislation. The judiciary is also often criticized for being influenced by the executive branch, undermining the notion of true separation of powers.

c) Constitutional Amendments and Flexibility

• The 1993 Constitution has been amended several times, with the most notable change occurring in 2020, allowing President Putin to stay in power until 2036 by resetting term limits. This amendment reflects the flexible nature of the Constitution, where the executive’s control can be solidified further.

Conclusion

Russia’s 1993 Constitution established a semi-presidential system with a clear separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. While it formally provides for checks and balances, the practical functioning of the system has led to a centralization of power in the hands of the President. Despite the constitutional framework for separation of powers, the dominance of the executive, particularly the President, often undermines the effectiveness and independence of the legislature and judiciary, leading to a more authoritarian style of governance in practice.

Q.7 How have China’s major social and welfare policies affected its society and class structure?

Ans- Introduction

China’s rapid economic growth since the late 20th century has been accompanied by ambitious social policies aimed at addressing inequality, expanding public welfare, and maintaining social stability. Key policies targeting education, healthcare, poverty reduction, housing, and rural development have significantly shaped the country’s social fabric and class structure. However, these efforts have produced mixed outcomes, revealing both progress and persistent challenges.

1. Major Policies Related to Social Classes and Public Welfare

a) Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development

• One of China’s flagship achievements has been the eradication of extreme poverty by 2020, lifting nearly 800 million people out of poverty since the 1980s.

• Programs like the Targeted Poverty Alleviation campaign focused on rural areas, improving infrastructure, housing, and access to education and healthcare.

• This has helped narrow the rural-urban gap, though regional disparities still remain.

b) Hukou System Reform (Household Registration)

• The hukou system, which classifies citizens as urban or rural residents, has long restricted rural migrants' access to urban public services.

• Recent reforms aim to relax hukou restrictions in smaller cities to allow better integration of rural migrants, though major cities like Beijing and Shanghai still have rigid controls.

• This reform is key to addressing social inequality, especially among internal migrant workers.

c) Expansion of Social Welfare Programs

• China has significantly expanded health insurance, pensions, and unemployment benefits in both urban and rural areas.

  • Over 95% of the population is now covered by basic medical insurance.

  • The Urban and Rural Resident Pension Scheme provides minimal but wide-reaching coverage.

• These programs help reduce economic insecurity, especially among the elderly and lower-income groups.

d) Education Equality and Compulsory Schooling

• China mandates 9 years of compulsory education and has invested heavily in rural education infrastructure.

• Policies like “balanced development” of compulsory education aim to reduce disparities between urban and rural schools.

• However, elite urban schools still offer more opportunities, contributing to a “class ceiling” based on geography and wealth.

e) Affordable Housing and Urbanization

• The government has built millions of low-cost housing units to improve urban living standards and control real estate speculation.

• Policies like the Public Rental Housing Scheme and subsidies for first-time homebuyers aim to assist lower- and middle-income families.

• Still, rising housing prices in major cities remain a major burden for young and working-class citizens, contributing to growing class frustration.

2. Impact on Chinese Society and Class Structure

a) Emerging Middle Class

• Welfare policies and economic reforms have fostered the rise of a large urban middle class, now estimated to number over 400 million.

• This group plays a critical role in consumer-driven growth, but also demands more from the state in terms of quality services and rights protection.

b) Reduced Absolute Poverty, Persistent Inequality

• Absolute poverty has been eliminated, but relative inequality remains high.

  • The Gini coefficient (a measure of income inequality) in China is still above 0.45—indicating significant income gaps.

• The wealth gap between urban elites and rural or migrant populations continues to create social tensions.

c) Urban-Rural Divide

• Despite targeted rural policies, urban residents still enjoy better access to healthcare, education, and employment.

• Migrant workers—numbering over 290 million—often live in precarious conditions with limited rights, especially in large cities due to hukou restrictions.

d) Rise of “Tangping” and Youth Discontent

• Young people increasingly express frustration with intense work culture, limited upward mobility, and rising living costs—leading to the “tangping” (lying flat) movement.

• This reflects a class consciousness among youth who feel excluded from China’s prosperity, despite welfare improvements.

e) Government Legitimacy and Social Stability

• Social welfare programs are key to maintaining the CPC’s political legitimacy, especially as economic growth slows.

• As long as the government delivers tangible benefits, it reinforces public support, particularly in the absence of electoral competition.

Conclusion

China’s major social and welfare policies have significantly improved living standards, lifted millions out of poverty, and contributed to the growth of a new middle class. However, deep-rooted inequalities persist, especially between urban and rural areas, and among different social classes. The government continues to balance economic growth with social redistribution, but rising expectations from the public and structural limitations pose.

Q.8 Explain the historical causes of social and economic inequalities in South Africa.

Ans-Introduction

South Africa’s deep-rooted social and economic inequalities are largely the result of colonialism, apartheid, and the deliberate marginalization of the majority Black population. These inequalities have shaped the country’s development and continue to affect its political, social, and economic structures today.

1. Colonial Legacy

a) European Settlement and Land Dispossession

• Beginning in the 17th century, Dutch and later British colonizers seized control of land, displacing indigenous African communities.

• The 1913 Natives Land Act reserved over 87% of land for the white minority and forcibly removed Black South Africans from fertile areas.

• This land inequality laid the foundation for agricultural and economic marginalization.

b) Labor Exploitation and Resource Extraction

• Black South Africans were used as cheap labor in mines, farms, and industries, especially after the discovery of gold and diamonds in the 19th century.

• Policies like the pass laws restricted Black mobility and forced them into low-wage work, while white settlers reaped the profits.

2. Apartheid System (1948–1994)

a) Racial Segregation and Legal Discrimination

• Under apartheid, the government enforced strict racial classifications, assigning people to different racial groups (White, Black, Coloured, Indian).

• Laws such as the Group Areas Act and Population Registration Act institutionalized racial segregation, denying non-Whites access to quality education, healthcare, and housing.

b) Education and Economic Exclusion

• The Bantu Education Act (1953) deliberately designed inferior education for Black South Africans, limiting their ability to access skilled jobs.

• Black workers were systematically excluded from ownership, professional positions, and entrepreneurship opportunities.

c) Urban Displacement and Spatial Inequality

• Non-White populations were forcibly removed from cities and resettled in underdeveloped townships or homelands, far from economic hubs.

• These geographic divisions continue to produce spatial inequality today, with townships lacking infrastructure and services.

3. Post-Apartheid Challenges and Continuities

a) Slow Redistribution of Land and Wealth

• Despite the end of apartheid in 1994, efforts at land reform and wealth redistribution have been slow and often poorly implemented.

• The white minority continues to own a disproportionate share of land and capital, while Black South Africans remain overrepresented among the poor.

b) Unemployment and Skill Gaps

• The apartheid-era education system left a lasting skills gap, contributing to high unemployment among Black South Africans.

• Even today, formal employment often favors individuals with access to better education and networks, largely still linked to race and class.

c) Structural Economic Barriers

• The economy remains capital-intensive, with limited inclusion of marginalized groups.

• Many Black South Africans remain trapped in informal or precarious employment, without social security or career mobility.

Conclusion

South Africa’s current social and economic inequalities are deeply tied to its colonial and apartheid past, which systematically excluded the majority from land, education, wealth, and power. Although the country has made efforts since 1994 to redress these inequalities through constitutional and policy reforms, the legacy of historical injustice continues to shape its society. Addressing these inequalities requires deep structural reforms, redistribution, and inclusive development strategies.

Q.9 Examine the structure and functioning of Israel’s electoral system. What are its key features and how do they influence the country’s broader political system?

Ans- Introduction

Israel's electoral system is based on nationwide proportional representation, a model that ensures broad representation of diverse political, religious, and ethnic groups. While the system promotes inclusivity and democratic participation, it also presents challenges in governance and political stability.

1. Main Features of Israel’s Electoral System

• Proportional Representation (PR):The entire country is treated as a single electoral district, and seats in the 120-member Knesset are allocated based on each party's share of the national vote.

• Party-List Voting: Voters cast ballots for a party, not individual candidates. Each party submits a ranked list of candidates before the election.

• Low Electoral Threshold: Currently set at 3.25%, this low bar allows smaller parties to enter parliament, contributing to a highly fragmented political landscape.

• No Direct Vote for Prime Minister: Although some past elections experimented with direct PM elections, currently the President nominates a party leader—typically the one most likely to form a coalition—as Prime Minister.

2. Characteristics of the System

• Inclusiveness and Representation: The PR model ensures that minority voices—including religious, ethnic, and ideological minorities—are represented in parliament.

• Multi-Party System: A large number of parties participate and win seats, leading to a diverse and pluralistic legislature.

• Frequent Coalition Governments: No single party has ever won an outright majority; coalitions are essential and often fragile.

• Political Volatility: The system has led to frequent elections—five between 2019 and 2022—due to the collapse of coalition governments.

3. Impact on Israel’s Political System

• Government Instability: Coalition governments can be short-lived and prone to internal conflict, making long-term policy planning difficult.

• Disproportionate Influence of Small Parties:Smaller parties often become kingmakers, leveraging their position in coalition talks to gain key concessions.

• Fragmented Policy Environment:With multiple parties in power, policymaking often involves compromise, slowing down reforms and leading to inconsistent governance.

• Broad Representation:On the positive side, the system allows for high levels of voter representation and ensures that diverse sectors of society are politically engaged.

Conclusion

Israel’s electoral system is deeply democratic and representative, giving voice to a wide spectrum of political and social interests. However, its very inclusiveness contributes to instability and complex coalition politics. The system shapes Israel’s political culture as one of negotiation, compromise, and frequent electoral contests—balancing democratic ideals with governance challenges.

challenges to achieving long-term social equity and harmony.

between continuity, adaptability, and democratic principles.