A. Ecological Issues: Climate Change, and International Environmental Agreements
Introduction:
Complex Relationships: Human-nature interactions have become complex due to unsustainable economic activities.
Threats: These activities endanger the environment, prompting campaigns for protection.
Commitment: States are committed to environmental protection, especially regarding climate change.
Climate Change: Poses threats to human security, food, energy, and biodiversity, requiring mitigation measures.
International Agreements: Formulated to address these challenges.
Global Environmentalism
Origins and Development:
Rachel Carson: "Silent Spring" (1962) raised awareness about pesticide impacts.
United Nations: Established the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in response.
Environmental Incidents of the 1970s:
Awareness: Incidents like mercury poisoning raised public awareness.
International Environmental Efforts:
Stockholm Declaration: Guided environmental protection after the First World Conference on Environment (1972).
UNEP: Coordinates global efforts to address environmental challenges.
Ecocentrism vs. Anthropocentrism:
Ecocentrism: Advocates for the environment's intrinsic value.
Anthropocentrism: Views the environment's value in relation to human benefits.
Major Themes in Climate Change Debates:
Global Commons: Require collective responsibility.
Development: Debate revolves around developed and developing nations' responsibilities.
Climate Justice and Equity: Advocates for fairness in mitigation and adaptation efforts.
Power Relations: Powerful nations often shape climate change negotiations.
Gender: Gender mainstreaming seeks to address gender inequalities in climate change impacts.
Information and Technology:
Role of Cyberspace: Used for environmental advocacy and information dissemination.
Geoengineering: Raises ethical and environmental concerns, requiring careful regulation.
Actors in Global Environmentalism:
State Actors: Governments play a crucial role in setting environmental policies.
Civil Society: NGOs and grassroots movements raise awareness and advocate for policy change.
Media: Shapes public opinion and influences government and corporate actions.
Major International Environmental Agreements:
First Climate Conference (1979): Led to the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
Montreal Protocol (1987): Aimed at protecting the ozone layer by controlling the use of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1994): Focuses on sustainable land management.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - Earth Summit (1992): Address biodiversity conservation and climate change.
Kyoto Protocol (1997): Set emission reduction targets for developed countries.
Copenhagen Accord (2009): A political agreement acknowledging the scientific case for limiting global temperature rise.
Paris Agreement (2015): Aims to limit global warming and pursue efforts to limit temperature increase.
Architecture of Climate Change Agreements:
Commitments to Mitigation: General commitments encourage comprehensive climate change policies.
Adaptation: Focuses on enhancing the resilience of communities and ecosystems.
Technical and Financial Assistance: Addresses unequal access to technology and finance.
Emission Trading: Introduces emissions trading as a market-based mechanism.
Reporting and International Review: Requires regular reports on emissions and actions.
Compliance System: Ensures parties meet their obligations, promoting compliance through dialogue.
Conclusion:
Anthropogenic Activities: Have significantly altered the environment.
Globalization: And increased economic activities have accelerated environmental degradation.
International Attention: Environmental issues gained global attention in the 1960s, leading to major international environmental agreements.
Climate Change: Is the most discussed environmental problem, affecting all aspects of life.
B. Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in Post- Cold War Era
Introduction
Nuclear Proliferation: Spread of nuclear weapons and technology to new countries.
Nuclear Diplomacy: Emerged after WWII, shaping political and military relations.
Evolution of Nuclear Weapons: Impact on global dynamics and security.
Motivation for Acquisition: Strategic, political, and prestige reasons drive states.
Cold War Influence: Nuclear weapons as deterrence, motivating non-nuclear states to seek nuclear capacity.
Globalization's Role: Some states move towards denuclearization.
Latin American Example: Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) establishes nuclear-free zone.
Nuclearization and Denuclearization
Denuclearization: Removal of nuclear capacity, establishing nuclear-free zones.
Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones (NWFZ): Bans on development, possession, and use in specific areas.
Nuclearization: Acquiring nuclear weapons, enhancing military power.
Preventing Proliferation: Efforts to prevent nuclear weapons from falling into wrong hands.
Atomic Bombings and "Weapons of Mass Destruction"
Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Demonstrated nuclear weapons' destructive power.
Creation of WMD Category: To distinguish these weapons from conventional arms.
Global Efforts Post-World War II
Awareness: Raised by scholars, activists, NGOs on nuclear weapons' effects.
Arms Race: Superpowers engaged in nuclear weapons development.
Establishment of UN Atomic Energy Commission
Purpose: To promote peaceful use of nuclear energy and eliminate nuclear weapons.
Challenges: Disagreements between superpowers hindered progress.
Atoms for Peace
Eisenhower's Proposal: Advocated for peaceful use of nuclear energy, led to IAEA establishment.
IAEA's Role: Promotes peaceful use, sets safety standards for nuclear facilities.
Important Anti-Proliferation Measures
Antarctic Treaty System (1959): Demilitarizes Antarctica, preserves for scientific research.
IAEA (1957): Promotes peaceful use, safeguards against military use.
Hotline Agreement (1963): Direct communication link between US and USSR leaders to reduce nuclear war risk.
LTBT (1963): Prohibits nuclear testing in atmosphere, space, underwater, limits to underground facilities.
NPT (1968): Aims to prevent spread, promote disarmament; nuclear-weapon states commit to disarmament, non-nuclear states commit not to acquire.
CTBT (1996, not yet in force): Bans all nuclear explosions for both civilian and military purposes.
Additional Protocol to IAEA Safeguards Agreements (1997): Enhances IAEA's verification ability.
UNSC Resolution 1540 (2004): Requires states to prevent proliferation of WMDs and their means of delivery.
Criticism and Challenges: NPT criticized for not achieving complete disarmament; challenges from states like North Korea.
NSG: Regulates export of nuclear materials, technology to prevent proliferation.
Seabed Arms Control Treaty (1971): Prohibits emplacement of WMDs on ocean floor.
Threshold Test Ban Treaty (1974): Prohibits nuclear tests exceeding 150 kilotons.
INF Treaty (1987): Eliminates intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles in Europe.
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) (1996): Bans all nuclear explosions.
International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005):
Criminalizes nuclear terrorism, promotes international cooperation.
Other Treaties and Conventions: SALT I and II, ABM Treaty, START I and II, Chemical Weapons Convention, New START.
Look Forward: Strengthen international cooperation, enhance verification, promote nuclear disarmament, address regional security, enhance security of nuclear materials, engage civil society.
C. Global Terrorism and Its Impact
Introduction
Terrorism Definition: Strategy using violence to achieve objectives, challenging legal authority.
Post-9/11 Impact: Hardening approach, leading to a global war on terrorism.
Genesis of International Terrorism
Historical Instances: Religious and political movements throughout history.
Resurgence Post-Cold War: Rise of religious terrorism, especially among Islamist organizations.
Global Jihad: Intensifies threat globally.
Nature of International Terrorism
Worldwide Phenomenon: Uses violence to instill fear among wider audience.
Justifications: Linked to political, ideological, or religious objectives.
International Linkages: Many terrorist groups have established global connections.
Drivers: Factors motivating individuals to become terrorists are complex and varied.
Types of International Terrorism
State-Sponsored Terrorism: Governments supporting non-state actors engaged in terrorism.
Right-wing and Left-wing Terrorism: Rooted in differing political ideologies.
Religious Terrorism: Motivated by absolute beliefs in violence sanctioned by higher power.
Global Terrorism: Transcends national boundaries, targeting easily accessible locations.
Causes of International Terrorism
Domestic Instability: Civil wars, low political and economic development contributing factors.
Failed States: Breeding grounds for terrorism due to conflict, political instability, human rights abuses.
Ideological and Psychological Factors: Moral values, radicalization play significant role in motivating individuals.
Ways to Combat Global Terrorism
NATO's Collective Defence: Invoked after 9/11 attacks.
UN Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001): Aims to combat terrorism, impacting human rights.
UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy: Emphasizes respect for human rights, rule of law.
Global Counter-Terrorism Forum (GCTF): Aims to exchange recommendations, good practices.
Madrid Memorandum: Ensures immediate, effective assistance to victims of terrorism.
Addressing Root Causes: Resolving conflicts, reducing discrimination, improving governance crucial.
Non-State Actors and State Terrorism
State-Sponsored Terrorism: State's active support, control of terrorist activities, often as surrogate warfare.
Who are Non-State Actors?: Entities other than sovereign states operating on international stage.
Status of Non-State Actors: Rise in numbers, often receiving extensive financial, technical assistance.
Counter-Terrorist Measures and United Nations
UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (2006): Comprehensive framework to address global threat.
Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (2005): Ensures overall coordination of measures.
Legal Framework: Sixteen universal legal instruments to provide framework for multilateral actions against terrorism.
Post 9/11 Developments
Impact of 9/11 Attacks: Turning point in world history, highlighting vulnerability.
Understanding 9/11: Coordinated hijackings, involvement of Al-Qaeda, global impact.
Global Response: "War on Terror," military interventions, increased security measures.
Challenges: Despite efforts, terrorism remains complex, persistent threat, requiring continued vigilance, cooperation.
Conclusion
Defining Terrorism: Complex, influenced by vested interests.
Nature of Terrorism: Involves unlawful violence, challenges legal authority.
State-Sponsored Terrorism: Blurs lines between state, non-state involvement.
Post-9/11 Impact: Significant shifts in global dynamics, counter-terrorism efforts.
Al-Qaeda's Ideology: Radicalization of violence, ongoing challenge.
Global Response: Reflects need for continued vigilance, cooperation.
D. Migration
Introduction
UN Convention of 1951 and 1967 Protocol: Defined refugees and set international standard for migration policy.
Global Migration Trends: Continuous growth, with approximately 272 million international migrants globally as of June 2019.
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: Recognizes migration's contribution to sustainable development, with 11 of 17 SDGs containing relevant targets and indicators.
Challenge of Migration: Despite growing migration, countries remain reluctant to meet the challenge, highlighting the need to address both migrants' needs and push factors.
Understanding Migration
Historical Perspective: Movement of people for various reasons such as tourism, employment, seeking safe environment, or better life prospects.
Human Migration Categories: Internal, external, emigration, immigration, return migration, and seasonal migration.
Voluntary vs. Involuntary Migration: Voluntary migrants leave by choice, involuntary migrants are forced to leave their country.
Categories and Rights of Migrants
Regular Migrants: Enter with authorization, recognized as legitimate members.
Irregular Migrants: Enter without proper authorization.
Refugees: Leave due to discrimination or insecurity, seeking asylum in another country.
Human Rights Implications: Importance of human rights in migration policy, particularly for irregular migrants facing exploitation and exclusion.
Migration Drivers
Factors Influencing Migration: Economic, political, social, cultural, demographic, and ecological factors.
Economic Migrants: Those with permission to work and live in a country vs. illegal or undocumented migrants.
Impact of Rights Protection: Migrants whose rights are protected can contribute economically and socially compared to irregular migrants.
Migration and Human Rights
Universal Nature of Human Rights: Apply to all individuals regardless of nationality or legal status.
Forced Displacement: Host countries have responsibility to protect individuals in cases where returning home is not an option due to risks.
Complexity in Refugee Protection and Migration: Requires progressive and constructive approach from states.
Migration at the Global Level
Rise in International Migration: Significant increase attributed to dissolution of states, population growth, technological advancements, and globalization.
Categories of Migrants: Labor migrants, migrant workers, and students.
Forced Displacement: 68.5 million people forcibly displaced by end of 2017.
South Asia and Migration
Historical Context
Significant migration due to conflicts, political events, and decolonization.
Major Migration Flows
Labor migration to countries like Canada, United States, and Australia since 1960s.
Increase in female migrants working in domestic roles since 1990s.
Migration to Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries
Popular destination for South Asian migrant labor, especially for construction projects.
Efforts and Organizations
SAARC, ARF, and BIMSTEC addressing migration issues through agreements and conventions.
Global initiatives like GFMD and Bali Process focusing on international migration and development.
Regional Cooperation
Colombo Process promoting safe, regular, and well-managed migration.
Budapest Process facilitating migration cooperation between Europe and Asia.
Impact of Natural Disasters
South Asia includes disaster-prone nations, leading to high number of people at risk of displacement.
Migration and Security
Evolution of Perception
Migration once viewed positively, now perceived as security threat due to changes in host countries' populations and state policies.
Socioeconomic Impact
Migrants can alter market dynamics and cultural identity of host countries, potentially causing internal unrest and violence.
Gender Dimension
Significant portion of migrants are women, many are victims of human trafficking.
Securitization of Migration
Migration transformed from positive phenomenon to securitized issue linked to terrorism, crime, and violence.
Conclusion
While states have right to control borders, restrictions on migration may not be justifiable on democratic grounds.
Freedom of movement is fundamental right, denying it contradicts principles of humanity, global justice, equality, and freedom.
Policy approaches should balance security concerns with human rights, seeking to address root causes of migration and promote safe, orderly, and regular migration channels.
E. Human Security
Introduction
Traditional Security Focus: Historically, security has been associated with state protection, prioritizing state security over other forms.
Realist Influence: Realist thinking emphasized military issues, defining peace as the absence of war.
State-Centric Approach: Security studies traditionally prioritized state and people security, often involving force.
Critical Security Studies: Emerged as a critique of state-centric militarism, advocating for a broader understanding of security.
Human Security Emergence: Critical security studies contributed to the emergence of human security, prioritizing individual well-being over the state.
Evolution of Security Studies
State-Centric Approach: Prioritized state and people security, involving force.
Critical Security Studies: Critiqued state-centric militarism, broadening the security agenda.
Human Security: Prioritizes individual well-being, focusing on the welfare of individuals.
Human Security: Defining the Concept
Shift to Individual Security: Redefines security's "referent object" from state to individual.
Policy Orientation: Focuses on policy changes for people's welfare.
Human Security: Linking Development and Security
Conceptual Framework: Encompasses economic, food, health, and political security, aiming for well-being and dignity.
Development and Security Nexus: Highlights interdependency between military and non-military threats.
Human Security: Critical Debates
Definition Contention: Lack of consensus on the exact meaning.
Narrow vs. Broad Interpretations: Debate between protection from violence and broader well-being approaches.
State vs. Individual Security: Disagreement on states' role in providing human security.
-
Security-Development Nexus: A Critical Appraisal
Underdevelopment and Insecurity Linkage: Underdevelopment leads to poverty and instability, hindering development.
Critique of Development Practices: Some argue current policies fail to address root causes of insecurity.
Liberal Development Complexes: Development initiatives influenced by global North interests.
Gender Dimension of Human Security: Women disproportionately affected by violence.
Human Security: International Community and Its Role
Establishment of International Mechanisms: War Crimes Tribunals, ICC, and Ottawa Convention aim to address serious crimes.
Role of NGOs: NGOs provide early warning about conflicts and assist in relief operations.
Conclusion
Status of Human Security: Has not achieved equal status as national security.
Challenges from Imposed Nation States: Imposed territorial nation states lead to conflict.
Authoritarian Rule and Civil Liberties: Limit political space and civil liberties, hindering human security.
Impact of War on Terror: Emphasizes national security, leading to restrictions on civil liberties.
Moving Towards Emancipatory Politics: Requires creating alternative spaces for human freedom and agency.
quality notes keep going