Aristotle (385–322 BC)
Introduction
Birth & Early Life: Born in Stagira, Greece; son of Nicomachus, a physician to the Macedonian king.
Education: Studied under Plato at the Academy for 20 years, leaving after Plato's death in 347 BC.
Career:
Served at Hermias’ court; later became tutor to Alexander the Great (342 BC).
Founded the Lyceum in Athens, focusing on empirical research.
Death: Fled Athens after Alexander's death due to anti-Macedonian sentiment; died in 322 BC in Chalcis.

Major Works
Key texts include Metaphysics, Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, Poetics, and De Anima.
Aristotle vs. Plato
Ideal & Reality: Plato emphasized transcendent forms; Aristotle grounded ideas in material reality.
Knowledge: Plato prioritized dialectics; Aristotle categorized knowledge as practical, productive, or theoretical.
Forms: Plato’s forms exist independently; Aristotle argued they are intrinsic to objects.
State & Family: Plato suggested communal ownership; Aristotle upheld family and private property as natural.
Rulers: Plato supported philosopher-kings; Aristotle warned against elite stagnation, emphasizing practical wisdom.
Methodology
Empirical Approach: Advocated observation and analysis over Plato’s dialectics.
Four Causes:
Material, Efficient, Formal, and Final Cause (telos), with the final cause being the ultimate purpose.
Teleology: All things aim toward their natural purpose, guiding Aristotle’s ethics, metaphysics, and politics.
Virtue & Ethics
Eudaimonia: Happiness or flourishing as the ultimate goal, achieved through virtue.
Golden Mean: Virtue lies between extremes (e.g., courage is between recklessness and cowardice).
Social Nature: Humans are political animals (zoon politikon), flourishing in communities.
State's Role: Enables citizens to achieve moral and intellectual virtues through participation.
Theory of the State
Teleological Basis: The state is a natural evolution of human association, from family to village to polis.
Man as Political Animal: Humans naturally seek communities due to speech and reason.
State’s Purpose: Cultivates virtues and ensures the highest good for its citizens.
Key Features:
Natural and necessary institution.
Greater than the individual, enabling moral and intellectual development.
Rejects social contract theories; emphasizes organic growth of the state.
Aristotle's Views on Rule of Law and Constitution
Rule of Law:
Law embodies collective wisdom and ensures justice.
Impersonal and fair laws guide citizens toward a virtuous life.
Constitution:
Reflects ethical values and structures political institutions.
Combines ethical goals (ideal citizen) and institutional frameworks (power distribution).
Key Elements of Constitutional Rule:
Common Interest: Aims at collective good.
No Arbitrary Power: Authority is constrained by law.
Consent over Force: Legitimacy through consent, not coercion.
Government Classification:
Good Forms: Monarchy, Aristocracy, Polity.
Corrupt Forms: Tyranny, Oligarchy, Democracy.
Polity as the Best Practicable Government:
Mix of democracy and oligarchy with middle-class rulers.
Stability stems from balanced governance and rational decision-making.
Ideal State:
Based on constitutional monarchy with moral virtues.
Citizenship defined by active political participation.
Justice:
Supreme virtue of the state, encompassing distributive (merit-based) and corrective (restorative) justice.
Property and Economy:
Advocates private property but opposes excessive wealth accumulation.
Supports natural acquisition for needs over profit-driven trade.
Slavery:
Views slavery as natural for some, based on inherent qualities.
Revolution:
Driven by desires for equality or superiority, wealth, and honor.
Causes include inequality, corruption, power concentration, and discontent.
Prevention measures: Adherence to laws, power checks, citizen education, and conflict management.
does not include works of Aristotle