Unit-1 Political Parties and the Party System Notes | BA Hons Political Science Semester 5

Introduction

• Political parties are vital to democratic governance, acting as intermediaries between the government and citizens.

• Key Functions:

  • Consolidate diverse opinions into actionable agendas.

  • Inspire public participation in elections.

  • Provide platforms for candidates to represent public interests.

  • Shape governance and public policies based on ideological principles.

• India's Multi-Party System:

  • Reflects cultural, linguistic, and regional diversity.

  • Prevents dominance by a single party, encouraging negotiation and compromise.

  • Ensures inclusive representation across national and regional levels.

Meaning of Political Party

• Definitions:

  • Giovanni Sartori: Groups engaged in regular electoral processes to hold power.

  • Encyclopedia Britannica: Organized groups aiming to gain and exercise political authority.

  • Lawson and Schwartz: Organizations nominating candidates to represent them in governance.

  
  

• Key Features:

  • Political parties unite individuals with shared ideologies.

  • Act as a structured pathway for citizens to participate in governance.

  • Promote competition, accountability, and public transparency.

Role of Political Parties

1. Political Education and Public Opinion:

   • Educate the populace on political and social issues.

   • Mobilize citizens to participate in democratic processes.

   • Launch movements to address and resolve societal challenges.

2. Policies and Programs:

   • Draft manifestos outlining their political vision and proposed policies.

   • Provide voters with clear choices based on ideological positions.

   • Influence legislative and executive decisions when in power.

3. Contesting Elections:

   • Nominate candidates to represent the party’s ideology and agenda.

   • Campaign actively to garner public support.

   • Engage with voters to understand and address their concerns.

4. Forming and Running Governments:

   • Parties forming the majority establish the government.

   • Appoint ministers and key policymakers to implement their agenda.

   • Ensure governance aligns with their manifesto commitments.

5. Link between Government and People:

   • Facilitate citizen access to government schemes and services.

   • Communicate public grievances and aspirations to authorities.

   • Act as a conduit for public engagement with governance.

6. Role in Law-Making:

   • Propose, debate, and amend legislative proposals.

   • Shape laws reflecting the party’s vision and public needs.

   • Collaborate across party lines to address national interests.

7. Keeping Government in Check:

   • As opposition, scrutinize government actions and policies.

   • Hold the ruling party accountable to ensure democratic checks and balances.

   • Offer alternative solutions and constructive criticism.

Significance in a Democracy

• Beyond power acquisition, political parties contribute as opposition by ensuring vigilance in governance.

• Foster pluralism by representing diverse sections of society, ensuring marginalized voices are heard.

• Constantly evolve with shifts in political dynamics, public sentiment, and voter behavior.

• India operates under a multi-party democracy, showcasing its immense diversity.

• As of February 2024, 2,846 registered political parties exist in India.

• Political parties cater to various segments of the population, addressing different interests, ideologies, and issues.

Types of Political Parties

1. National Party

   • Operates across the entire country with a pan-India presence.

   • Represents broad ideological platforms to appeal to diverse populations.

   • Examples:

     • Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

     • Indian National Congress (INC)

2. Regional Party

   • Operates within specific states or regions.

   • Focuses on regional interests, culture, language, and socio-political identities.

   • Examples:

     • Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) in Assam.

     • Telugu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh.

3. Local Party

   • Active at the district or municipal level.

   • Addresses local issues and has influence limited to smaller areas within states.

   • Examples:

     • Mithilanchal Vikas Morcha in Bihar.

     • Vidarbha Rajya Aghadi in Maharashtra.

   
   

Classification by Election Commission of India (ECI)

1. National Parties

   • Recognized based on:

     • Securing 6% of valid votes in any four states and winning at least 4 Lok Sabha seats.

     • Winning 2% of Lok Sabha seats (11 seats) from at least three states.

     • Receiving 8% of votes in a general election across four or more states.

     • Recognition as a state party in at least four states.

   • As of 2024, six national parties:

     • BJP, INC, BSP, AAP, CPI(M), and NPP.

       
       

2. State Parties

   • Recognized based on:

     • Securing 6% of votes and winning at least 2 seats in the state legislative assembly.

     • Winning at least 3% of assembly seats or 3 seats, whichever is higher.

     • Winning 8% of total valid votes in the state.

   • Examples:

     • Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) in Punjab.

     • YSR Congress Party (YSRCP) in Andhra Pradesh.

       
       

3. Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPP)

   • Registered with ECI but fail to meet the criteria for national or state recognition.

   • As of 2024, 2,764 RUPPs exist in India.

Advantages of Recognized Political Parties

• Exclusive rights to use the party symbol across elections (national/state level).

• National and state parties can nominate up to 40 star campaigners; RUPPs are limited to 20.

• Campaign costs of star campaigners are excluded from candidate expenditure limits.

• National and state party candidates need only one proposer for nomination (RUPPs need ten).

• Government provides land for constructing party offices to national parties.

• Greater access to airtime on national TV and radio for election campaigning.

  
  

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TRENDS IN THE PARTY SYSTEM: THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

India's democratic framework showcases a rich political diversity, demonstrated through 18 general elections to the Lok Sabha and over 350 state assembly elections. The evolution of political parties and their systems reflects the dynamic nature of the country's democracy, transitioning from a single-party dominance to a coalition-driven and multi-party era.

Meaning of Party System

In political science, a party system defines how political parties function within a democracy. It includes their governance, public support, and organizational structures. Early scholars like James Bryce and Giovanni Sartori studied these systems, emphasizing factors such as electoral competitiveness and vote-to-seat conversions.

Types of Party Systems Globally

1. One-Party System: A single party dominates the government (e.g., China).

2. Dominant-Party System: One party consistently wins elections with little competition (e.g., Russia).

3. Two-Party System: Two main parties dominate electoral politics (e.g., the United States).

4. Multi-Party System: Multiple parties compete, often forming coalitions to govern (e.g., Israel).

5. Non-Partisan System: Governance occurs without party affiliations (e.g., Micronesia).

Evolution of India’s Party System

First Phase: Dominance of the Indian National Congress (1952–1967)

• Marked by the Congress System or One-Party Dominant System, as termed by Rajni Kothari.

• Congress won majorities in nearly all elections, dominating both Lok Sabha and state assemblies.

Second Phase: Decline of Congress and Rise of Opposition (1967–1989)

• Congress began losing ground, evident in the 1967 elections when it lost seven state assemblies.

• Opposition parties like Jan Sangh, CPI, and DMK began to challenge Congress's dominance.

Third Phase: Coalition Era (1989–2014)

• Marked by unpredictable alliances and minority governments.

• The BJP emerged as a significant player, leading coalitions under the National Democratic Alliance (NDA).

• Congress formed the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), resulting in a bi-nodal system.

Fourth Phase: BJP Dominance (2014–Present)

• BJP's single-party majority in 2014 marked the emergence of a new dominant-party system.

• In 2019, BJP strengthened its position, increasing its seat count and vote share significantly.

Current Party Landscape in India

• National Parties: Lead nationwide campaigns (e.g., BJP, Congress).

• Regional Parties: Focus on specific states or regions (e.g., DMK, TMC).

• Local Parties: Address localized issues (e.g., Vidarbha Rajya Aghadi).

• Identity-Based Parties: Represent specific communities (e.g., AIMIM).

• Issue-Based Parties: Advocate for particular causes (e.g., BRS).

Key Features of the Congress System

1. Dominance Without Monopolization: The Congress System was unique in that it allowed a functioning democracy while maintaining a hegemonic presence. Opposition parties existed but operated within Congress's overarching dominance. These parties acted more as corrective forces than as serious contenders for power, contributing ideas and critiques rather than posing significant electoral threats.

   
   

2. Electoral Success: The INC’s electoral dominance was evident in its consistent victories:

   • First Three General Elections (1952, 1957, 1962): Congress secured over two-thirds of the Lok Sabha seats and maintained a vote share between 44-48%.

   • State-Level Dominance: Congress won the majority in almost all state legislatures, barring exceptions like Kerala (Communist Party), Nagaland (Naga National Organisation), and Jammu & Kashmir (National Conference).

   • This dominance showcased its ability to appeal to a wide spectrum of voters across diverse linguistic, regional, and cultural demographics.

     
     

3. Umbrella Organization: The Congress System was inclusive, representing a coalition of diverse interests and social groups. It acted as a broad tent accommodating various ideologies—liberals, socialists, and even conservatives—under one platform. This inclusivity was key to preventing the emergence of a cohesive opposition.

   • For example, Congress often co-opted regional leaders and movements, ensuring that dissent was managed within the party rather than outside it.

     
     

4. Grassroots Organizational Strength:Congress had a vast network of workers and leaders who were deeply entrenched in both rural and urban areas. Its ability to connect with the common masses through village-level organizations and outreach programs helped it sustain its appeal.

   • Leaders from diverse social and economic backgrounds acted as intermediaries, translating national policies into local realities.

     
     

5. Weak Opposition:Opposition parties were fragmented and lacked both the organizational structure and ideological unity to challenge Congress effectively. They often competed against each other, diluting their influence.

   • Many opposition parties were limited to specific regions or issues, such as linguistic identity or caste-based grievances, making it difficult to present a national-level challenge.

     
     

6. Strategic Leadership:Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru provided a vision of India as a secular, socialist, and non-aligned state, resonating with aspirations for modernization and development. His leadership projected stability and continuity, while his charismatic persona helped retain public trust.

   • Nehru’s successors, like Indira Gandhi, also played pivotal roles. Her populist measures, such as the “Garibi Hatao” campaign, appealed to the masses and further consolidated Congress’s position during her tenure.

   
   

Overall, India's party system demonstrates a transition from INC’s single-party dominance to a more competitive and pluralistic political environment.

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TRENDS IN THE PARTY SYSTEM: THE ASCENDENCY OF BHARATIYA JANATA PARTY

From Congress Dominance to the Bi-Nodal System

1. Congress System (Pre-1989):

   • The Indian National Congress (INC) was the dominant political force in India, maintaining a near-monopoly in national politics.

   • The Congress system was characterized by a centralized leadership structure, with decisions primarily controlled by the party's high command, especially Nehru and later Indira Gandhi.

   • The party's broad ideological tent included diverse factions, ranging from socialists to liberals, and this flexibility allowed the INC to win elections across various regions and social groups, from urban elites to rural poor.

     
     

2. Decline of Congress (1980s):

   • In the 1980s, the Indian National Congress’s dominance began to erode due to a combination of internal crises, economic stagnation, and increasing political fragmentation.

   • The rise of regionalism and identity politics (e.g., caste-based politics, regional parties) began challenging the INC’s dominance at the state level.

   • Economic challenges like inflation and unemployment, along with the Congress's failure to deliver on its promises, further weakened its support base.

     
     

3. Bi-Nodal Party System (Post-1998):

   • By the late 1990s, India saw a shift toward a bi-polar party system with the emergence of two dominant poles: the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Indian National Congress (INC).

   • This period marked a clear ideological divide between the right-wing BJP and the more centrist, secular INC.

   • The BJP’s rise, especially after its victory in the 1998 and 1999 elections, signaled the end of Congress’s monopoly over national politics and the beginning of a new era in Indian politics.

   • The BJP's triumph in the 2014 elections with a single-party majority marked the consolidation of the BJP as the central pole of India's new bi-nodal system.

Coalition Era (1989-1998)

Key Events

1. 1989 General Elections:

   • The Indian National Congress led by Rajiv Gandhi suffered a massive setback, winning only 193 seats in the Lok Sabha out of 525.

   • A fragmented verdict led to the formation of a United Front (UF) coalition government under the leadership of Vishwanath Pratap Singh, supported by both the BJP and the Left parties.

   • The United Front was an umbrella of regional parties, such as the AGP (Assam Ganatantrik Parishad), DMK (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam), and TDP (Telugu Desam Party), reflecting the rise of regional political forces.

     
     

2. Instability in Coalitions:

   • The VP Singh government was short-lived due to internal divisions and controversies, with Singh losing his majority in the Lok Sabha.

   • In 1990, Chandra Shekhar formed a new government with just 64 MPs, with the Indian National Congress offering outside support, but it too collapsed within 16 months.

   • 1991 elections came after the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, leading to a surprise comeback for the INC, which, under P.V. Narasimha Rao, won 244 seats and spearheaded the economic reforms agenda.

     
     

3. 1996 Hung Parliament:

   • 1996 Lok Sabha elections produced a hung parliament, where BJP emerged as the single largest party with 161 seats, though it lacked majority support to form the government.

   • Atal Bihari Vajpayee became the first non-Congress leader to serve as Prime Minister. However, his government lasted just 13 days due to failure to secure a majority in the Lok Sabha.

   • The United Front coalition formed under the leadership of HD Deve Gowda, but internal conflicts led to its collapse after just 9 months.

   • Inder Kumar Gujral took over as the new Prime Minister in 1997, heading another short-lived coalition government.

Dominant Factors in Coalition Politics

1. Frequent Party Shifts and Alliances:

   • The coalition era witnessed frequent party-switching by politicians and parties, leading to instability and undermining the credibility of elected representatives.

   • Defections and the changing of alliances for gaining power became a common phenomenon, with regional parties often forming new alliances with the INC or BJP as required.

     
     

2. Rise of Regional Parties:

   • Regional parties like TDP, Samajwadi Party (SP), and DMK capitalized on local and regional issues, growing their influence and further fragmenting the political landscape.

   • These parties began to play a significant role in coalition politics, making it impossible for any single national party to secure a majority on its own.

     
     

3. Caste Mobilization and Mandal Commission (1990):

   • The implementation of the Mandal Commission’s report, which recommended reservations for Other Backward Classes (OBCs), led to a caste-based political realignment.

   • The caste-based mobilization caused the rise of new political groups representing OBCs, Dalits, and minorities.

     
     

4. Economic Reforms:

   • Economic liberalization began in 1991 under P.V. Narasimha Rao, with the dismantling of the License Raj and opening the economy to globalization.

   • The economic crisis in the early 1990s pushed India to adopt reforms that transformed the economy and reshaped its political landscape, impacting the alignment of political parties.

     
     

5. Electoral Malpractices:

   • Booth capturing and electoral malpractices became rampant during this era, undermining public trust in elections and democratic institutions.

     
     

6. Influence of Media:

   • The proliferation of electronic media, especially television, played a key role in shaping public opinion and increasing political engagement, making the media an essential part of political campaigns.

Formation of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA)

1. 1998 Elections

   • In the 1998 general elections, the BJP formed a minority government under Atal Bihari Vajpayee, marking the rise of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA).

   • The NDA was a coalition of 13 pre-poll and 9 post-poll allies, including smaller parties like the TDP and the National Conference (NC).

   • Although the BJP won only 182 seats, it was able to form a government with the support of its allies.

     
     

2. 1999 Elections

   • BJP-led NDA won 302 seats, with the BJP securing 182 seats alone. In contrast, INC-led alliances secured 137 seats.

   • The 1999 election marked the first time that a non-INC government (BJP) completed a full term, further cementing the bi-nodal system in Indian politics.

     
     

3. Policy Achievements Under Vajpayee

   • Emphasis on economic growth, infrastructure development, and social welfare.

   • Continued the economic reforms initiated in the early 1990s, with notable projects like the Golden Quadrilateral, a massive highway development initiative.

United Progressive Alliance (UPA)

1. 2004 General Elections

   • INC-led UPA formed a government with the support of the Left Front and regional parties.

   • Manmohan Singh became the Prime Minister, leading a coalition government that emphasized inclusive growth and welfare reforms.

     
     

2. 2009 General Elections:

   • UPA won 262 seats, with INC securing 206 seats. Although short of a majority, the UPA formed a government with external support from regional parties like SP, BSP, and RJD.

   • Continued focus on economic reforms, including the MGNREGA, Aadhar, and National Food Security Act.

Factors Defining the Bi-Nodal System

1. Stable Governance Amid Challenges

   • Despite coalition pressures, both the NDA and UPA managed to ensure stability and continuity in governance, reflecting the maturity of coalition politics in India.

     
     

2. Broad Ideological Frameworks

   • The BJP-led NDA was seen as an anti-Congress alliance, advocating for more nationalistic, Hindu-centric policies, while the UPA focused on inclusive growth and secularism.

     
     

3. Policy Continuity

   • Both the NDA and UPA continued policies of economic liberalization, privatization, and globalization, despite ideological differences.

     
     

4. Coalition Limitations:

   • Constant negotiations and compromises among coalition partners sometimes led to policy gridlocks, corruption scandals, and ineffective governance.

Emergence and Domination of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

The rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) represents a significant shift in India's political landscape, challenging the long-standing dominance of the Indian National Congress (INC). Founded in 1980, the BJP’s roots trace back to the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), established in 1951 by Syama Prasad Mookerjee.

Early Years of Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS)

• In the 1952 elections, the BJS won only 3.06% of the vote, securing three seats. By 1962, this grew to 6.44% and 14 seats. The 1964 conceptualization of Integral Humanism, led by Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya, became the ideological foundation for the party.

• In 1967, the BJS became the second-largest party, winning 35 seats and expanding its influence at the state level.

Formation of Janata Party and the Birth of BJP

• In 1977, the BJS merged with other opposition parties to form the Janata Party, leading to Indira Gandhi's defeat. However, internal conflict led to the Janata Party’s collapse, and in 1980, the BJP was formed with Atal Bihari Vajpayee as its first president.

• The 1984 elections were a setback, as the BJP won only two seats. However, the party began its gradual rise in subsequent years.

Growth from 1989 to 1999

• In 1989, the BJP won 85 seats, and in 1991, it secured 120 seats. In 1996, the BJP formed a 13-day government, signaling its growing influence.

• By 1998, the BJP emerged as the single-largest party, leading the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) to form the government, continuing its momentum in the 1999 elections.

BJP’s Dominance (2004-2014)

• Despite the BJP’s rise, INC-led coalitions won in 2004 and 2009, but the BJP’s influence continued to grow, especially under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

• 2014 marked a turning point as the BJP, led by Narendra Modi, won a majority in the Lok Sabha with 282 seats and 31% vote share, while the INC secured only 44 seats. This victory reshaped India’s political environment.

2019 and 2024: Consolidation of Power

• In 2019, the BJP increased its seats to 303 with 37.36% vote share, securing continued dominance.

• Despite minor setbacks in some states, the 2024 elections saw the BJP-led NDA retaining power with 293 seats and 42.5% vote share, despite a slight decline in its national vote share to 36.1%. The INC gained some ground, increasing seats to 99, but could not challenge BJP’s position.

Factors Behind BJP's Rise

Key factors contributing to the BJP’s dominance include:

1. Strong Leadership: Narendra Modi’s image as an incorruptible and decisive leader attracted support, particularly from aspirational India.

2. Social Engineering: The BJP’s success lies in creating a broad social coalition across caste, religion, and class lines.

3. Bold Political Decisions: Policies like demonetization, GST, Article 370 abrogation, and Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) bolstered its appeal.

4. Welfare Policies: Initiatives aimed at economic development and welfare schemes expanded its base among economically weaker sections.

5. Fragmentation of Opposition: Internal divisions within opposition parties have weakened their ability to challenge the BJP effectively.

Characteristics of India’s Party System

India’s party system has evolved through multiple phases, exhibiting several distinct characteristics:

1. Multi-party System: India’s political landscape is marked by a multi-party system, with numerous parties competing for power at various levels of government, from national to local.

2. Dominance of Major Parties: Although India has a variety of political parties, the system has been historically dominated by a few major parties, particularly the BJP and the INC.

3. Leader-Centric Parties: The fortunes of political parties are often tied to charismatic leaders. Leaders such as Narendra Modi and Indira Gandhi exert significant influence over party strategies, decision-making, and electoral campaigns, sometimes overshadowing party ideologies.

4. Regionalism: Regional parties play a crucial role in Indian politics, focusing on issues specific to states or regions. These parties often form key alliances at the national level, influencing governance.

5. Coalition Politics: Given the multi-party nature, coalition governments are common, especially at the national level. Coalitions often involve negotiation and compromise among various political partners to form a majority.

6. Diversity of Ideologies: Indian political parties span a broad spectrum of ideologies, from left-wing socialist to right-wing nationalist, as well as regional and caste-based interests. This reflects the complex socio-political landscape of India.

   
   

List of Indian Prime Ministers and Their Tenures

Name	Tenure	Party
Jawaharlal Nehru	Aug 15, 1947 – May 27, 1964	Indian National Congress (INC)
Gulzari Lal Nanda	May 27, 1964 – June 9, 1964	Indian National Congress (INC)
Lal Bahadur Shastri	June 9, 1964 – Jan 11, 1966	Indian National Congress (INC)
Gulzari Lal Nanda	Jan 11, 1966 – Jan 24, 1966	Indian National Congress (INC)
Indira Gandhi	Jan 24, 1966 – Mar 24, 1977	Indian National Congress (INC)
Morarji Desai	Mar 24, 1977 – July 28, 1979	Janata Party
Charan Singh	July 28, 1979 – Jan 14, 1980	Janata Party
Indira Gandhi	Jan 14, 1980 – Oct 31, 1984	Indian National Congress (INC)
Rajiv Gandhi	Oct 31, 1984 – Dec 2, 1989	Indian National Congress (INC)
Vishwanath Pratap Singh	Dec 2, 1989 – Nov 10, 1990	Janata Dal
Chandra Shekhar	Nov 10, 1990 – June 21, 1991	Janata Dal (S)
P. V. Narasimha Rao	June 21, 1991 – May 16, 1996	Indian National Congress (INC)
Atal Bihari Vajpayee	May 16, 1996 – June 1, 1996	Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
H. D. Deve Gowda	June 1, 1996 – Apr 21, 1997	Janata Dal
Inder Kumar Gujral	Apr 21, 1997 – Mar 19, 1998	Janata Dal
Atal Bihari Vajpayee	Mar 19, 1998 – May 22, 2004	Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
Manmohan Singh	May 22, 2004 – May 26, 2014	Indian National Congress (INC)
Narendra Modi	May 26, 2014 – Present	Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

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